IRF-5 haplotypes in systemic lupus erythematosus

ABSTRACT

Methods and materials involved in diagnosing SLE are provided herein. The methods and materials can be used to diagnose SLE and/or assess a mammal&#39;s susceptibility to develop SLE, based on the presence or absence of one or more IRF-5 variants.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/694,272, filed Mar. 30, 2007, now abandoned.

STATEMENT AS TO FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

Funding for the work described herein was provided in part by the National Institutes of Health, grant numbers AI 63274-01 and AR 43274-10. The federal government has certain rights in the invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This document relates to materials and methods for diagnosing or predicting risk of systemic lupus erythematosus.

BACKGROUND

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic, inflammatory autoimmune disease characterized by antinuclear autoantibodies and deposition of immune complexes, leading to organ damage and early death (Alarcon-Segovia et al. (2005) Arthritis Rheum. 52:1138-1147). SLE autoantibodies mediate organ damage by directly binding to host tissues and by forming immune complexes that deposit in vascular tissues and activate immune cells. Organs targeted in SLE include the skin, kidneys, vasculature, joints, various blood elements, and the central nervous system (CNS). The severity of disease, the spectrum of clinical involvement, and the response to therapy vary widely among patients.

The type I interferon (IFN) pathway is activated in human SLE (Blanco et al. (2001) Science 294:1540-1543; Ronnblom and Alm (2001) J. Exp. Med. 194:F59-63; Baechler et al. (2003) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100:2610-2615). Type I IFN is a central mediator of viral immunity (Isaacs and Lindenmann (1957) Proc. R. Soc. B 147:258-273), and many SLE patients strongly overexpress IFN-responsive genes in blood cells (Baechler et al. supra; Bennett et al. (2003) J. Exp. Med. 197:711-723; Kirou et al. (2004) Arthritis Rheum. 50:3958-3967). However, it is not known whether the IFN expression signature is a general biomarker of a dysregulated immune system, or rather reflects primary genetic variation causal to the pathogenesis of human SLE.

IFN regulatory factor 5 (IRF-5) is a member of a family of transcription factors that controls inflammatory and immune responses (Honda et al. (2005) Int. Immunol. 17:1367-1378). IRF-5 has a critical role in the production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-12 (IL-12), and IL-6 following toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling as determined by knockout mouse studies (Takaoka et al. (2005) Nature 434:243-249), and is also important for transactivation of type I IFN and IFN-responsive genes (Barnes et al. (2001) J. Biol. Chem. 276:23382-23390; Barnes et al. (2004) J. Biol. Chem. 279:45194-45207).

The clinical heterogeneity of SLE makes it challenging to diagnose and manage this disease. Moreover, current therapy options for SLE are limited, and therapy strategies are highly individualized and tend to include much trial and error. Thus, there is a need for diagnostic technologies for SLE that can identify patients that will likely respond well to particular therapies.

SUMMARY

This document is based in part on the discovery that several IRF-5 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are associated with SLE. For example, the results provided herein demonstrate that the IRF-5 rs2004640 T allele, rs2880714 T allele, rs2070197 C allele, rs10954213 A allele, and exon 6 insertion allele are associated with SLE. The results also demonstrate that the rs2004640 T allele creates a 5′ donor splice site in an alternate exon 1 of IRF-5 (exon-1B), and that only individuals with the donor splice site express IRF-5 isoforms initiated at exon-1B. In addition, the results show that rs2880714, an independent cis-acting variant that drives elevated expression of IRF-5 transcripts, is strongly linked to the exon-1B splice donor site. Further, the results presented herein demonstrate that the rs10954213 A allele results in a “short form” IRF-5 mRNA and a truncated 3′ untranslated region (UTR). This allele also is associated with elevated levels of IRF-5 expression. Haplotypes with elevated IRF-5 expression in the absence of the exon-1B donor site, however, do not confer risk to SLE. Further, a germline polymorphism has been discovered that results in a 30 nucleotide insertion in exon 6 of IRF-5, and have observed that this insertion also is associated with SLE. An IRF-5 haplotype that drives elevated expression of multiple unique isoforms of IRF-5 can be an important genetic risk factor for SLE, proving a causal role of type I IFN pathway genes in human autoimmune disease.

In one aspect, this document features a method for assessing the predisposition of a mammal to develop systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), comprising: (a) determining whether or not the mammal has an IRF-5 haplotype comprising an rs2004640 T allele, an IRF-5 exon 6 insertion allele, and an rs10954213 A allele; and (b) classifying the mammal as being susceptible to develop SLE if the mammal has the IRF-5 haplotype, or classifying the mammal as not being susceptible to develop SLE if the mammal does not contain the IRF-5 haplotype. The mammal can be a human. The method can further include determining whether a biological sample from the mammal contains elevated levels of interferon-α (IFN-α), interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA), interleukin-6 (IL-6), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), macrophage inflammatory protein-1α (MIP-1α), macrophage inflammatory protein-1β (MIP-1β), or tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α).

In another aspect, this document features a method for diagnosing SLE in a mammal, comprising: (a) determining whether or not the mammal has an IRF-5 haplotype comprising an rs2004640 T allele, an IRF-5 exon 6 insertion allele, and an rs10954213 A allele; and (b) classifying the mammal as being susceptible to develop SLE if the mammal has the IRF-5 haplotype, or classifying the mammal as not being susceptible to develop SLE if the mammal does not have the IRF-5 haplotype. The mammal can be a human. The method can further include determining whether a biological sample from the mammal contains elevated levels of IFN-α, IL-1RA, IL-6, MCP-1, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, or TNF-α.

In another aspect, this document features a method for assessing the predisposition of a mammal to develop SLE, comprising: (a) determining whether or not the mammal has an IRF-5 haplotype comprising an rs2004640 T allele, an IRF-5 exon 6 insertion allele, an rs10954213 A allele, and an rs2070197 C allele; and (b) classifying the mammal as being susceptible to develop SLE if the mammal has the IRF-5 haplotype, or classifying the mammal as not being susceptible to develop SLE if the mammal does not have the IRF-5 haplotype. The mammal can be a human. The method can further include determining whether a biological sample from the mammal contains elevated levels of interferon-α (IFN-α), interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA), interleukin-6 (IL-6), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), macrophage inflammatory protein-1α (MIP-1α), macrophage inflammatory protein-1β (MIP-1β), or tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α).

In another aspect, this document features a method for diagnosing SLE in a mammal, comprising: (a) determining whether or not the mammal has an IRF-5 haplotype comprising an rs2004640 T allele, an IRF-5 exon 6 insertion allele, an rs10954213 A allele, and an rs2070197 C allele; and (b) classifying the mammal as being susceptible to develop SLE if the mammal has the IRF-5 haplotype, or classifying the mammal as not being susceptible to develop SLE if the mammal does not have the IRF-5 haplotype. The mammal can be a human. The method can further include determining whether a biological sample from the mammal contains elevated levels of IFN-α, IL-1RA, IL-6, MCP-1, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, or TNF-α.

In another aspect, this document features a method for assessing the predisposition of a mammal to develop SLE, comprising: (a) determining whether or not the mammal comprises cells containing a level of an IRF-5 polypeptide that is greater than an average level of an IRF-5 polypeptide in control cells from one or more control mammals, wherein the mammal and the one or more control mammals are from the same species, and wherein the IRF-5 polypeptide in the mammal comprises an amino acid sequence encoded by exon 1B and an amino acid sequence encoded by an insertion in exon 6; and (b) classifying the mammal as being susceptible to develop SLE if the mammal contains the cells, or classifying the mammal as not being susceptible to develop SLE if the mammal does not contain the cells. The mammal can be a human. The one or more control mammals can be healthy humans. The cells and the control cells can be peripheral blood mononuclear cells or whole blood cells. The level of IRF-5 polypeptide in the mammal can be greater than the average level of IRF-5 polypeptide in control cells from at least 10 control mammals, or greater than the average level of IRF-5 polypeptide in control cells from at least 20 control mammals. The determining step can include measuring the level of IRF-5 mRNA encoding the IRF-5 polypeptide, or measuring the level of IRF-5 polypeptide. The method can further include determining whether a biological sample from the mammal contains elevated levels of IFN-α, IL-1RA, IL-6, MCP-1, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, or TNF-α.

In another aspect, this document features a method for diagnosing SLE in a mammal, comprising: (a) determining whether or not the mammal comprises cells containing a level of an IRF-5 polypeptide that is greater than an average level of an IRF-5 polypeptide in control cells from one or more control mammals, wherein the mammal and the one or more control mammals are from the same species, and wherein the IRF-5 polypeptide in the mammal comprises an amino acid sequence encoded by exon 1B and an amino acid sequence encoded by an insertion in exon 6; and (b) classifying the mammal as being susceptible to develop SLE if the mammal contains the cells, or classifying the mammal as not being susceptible to develop SLE if the mammal does not contain the cells. The mammal can be a human. The one or more control mammals can be healthy humans. The cells and the control cells can be peripheral blood mononuclear cells or whole blood cells. The level of IRF-5 polypeptide in the mammal can be greater than the average level of IRF-5 polypeptide in control cells from at least 10 control mammals, or greater than the average level of IRF-5 polypeptide in control cells from at least 20 control mammals. The determining step can include measuring the level of IRF-5 mRNA encoding the IRF-5 polypeptide, or measuring the level of IRF-5 polypeptide. The method can further include determining whether a biological sample from the mammal contains elevated levels of IFN-α, IL-1RA, IL-6, MCP-1, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, or TNF-α.

In yet another aspect, this document features a method for determining the likelihood of a mammal to respond to treatment with a therapy directed to IRF-5, comprising: (a) determining whether or not the mammal has an IRF-5 haplotype comprising an rs2004640 T allele, an IRF-5 exon 6 insertion allele, and an rs10954213 A allele; and (b) classifying the mammal as likely to respond to the therapy if the mammal has the IRF-5 haplotype, or classifying the mammal as not being likely to respond to the therapy if the mammal does not have the IRF-5 haplotype. The mammal can be a human. The mammal can be diagnosed as having SLE. A response to the therapy can include a reduction in one or more symptoms of SLE. The method can further include determining whether a biological sample from the mammal contains elevated levels of IFN-α, IL-1RA, IL-6, MCP-1, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, or TNF-α.

In still another aspect, this document features a method for determining the likelihood of a mammal to respond to treatment with a therapy directed to IRF-5, comprising: (a) determining whether or not the mammal comprises cells containing a level of an IRF-5 polypeptide that is greater than an average level of an IRF-5 polypeptide in control cells from one or more control mammals, wherein the mammal and the one or more control mammals are from the same species, and wherein the IRF-5 polypeptide in the mammal comprises an amino acid sequence encoded by exon 1B and an amino acid sequence encoded by an insertion in exon 6; and (b) classifying the mammal as likely to respond to the therapy if the mammal contains the cells, or classifying the mammal as not being likely to respond to the therapy if the mammal does not contain the cells. The mammal can be a human. The mammal can be diagnosed as having SLE. The one or more control mammals can be healthy humans. The cells and the control cells can be peripheral blood mononuclear cells or whole blood cells. The level of IRF-5 polypeptide in the mammal can be greater than the average level of IRF-5 polypeptide in control cells from at least 10 control mammals, or greater than the average level of IRF-5 polypeptide in control cells from at least 20 control mammals. The determining step can include measuring the level of IRF-5 mRNA encoding the IRF-5 polypeptide, or measuring the level of IRF-5 polypeptide. A response to the therapy can include a reduction in one or more symptoms of SLE. The method can further include determining whether a biological sample from the mammal contains elevated levels of IFN-α, IL-1RA, IL-6, MCP-1, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, or TNF-α. The method can include determining whether or not the mammal contains detectable levels of an IRF-5 mRNA having a truncated 3′ untranslated region.

In another aspect, this document features a method for determining the likelihood of a mammal to respond to treatment with a therapy directed to a cytokine or a Toll like receptor (TLR), comprising: (a) determining whether or not the mammal has an IRF-5 haplotype comprising an rs2004640 T allele, an IRF-5 exon 6 insertion allele, and an rs10954213 A allele; and (b) classifying the mammal as likely to respond to the treatment if the mammal has the IRF-5 haplotype, or classifying the mammal as not being likely to respond to the treatment if the mammal does not have the IRF-5 haplotype. The cytokine can be IFN-α, IL-1RA, IL-6, MCP-1, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, or TNF-α. The TLR can be TLR7, TLR8, or TLR9. The mammal can be a human. The method can further include determining whether a biological sample from the mammal contains elevated levels of IFN-α, IL-1RA, IL-6, MCP-1, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, or TNF-α.

In yet another aspect, this document features a method for determining the likelihood of a mammal to respond to treatment with a therapy directed to a cytokine or a TLR, comprising: (a) determining whether or not the mammal comprises cells containing a level of an IRF-5 polypeptide that is greater than an average level of an IRF-5 polypeptide in control cells from one or more control mammals, wherein the mammal and the one or more control mammals are from the same species, and wherein the IRF-5 polypeptide in the mammal comprises an amino acid sequence encoded by exon 1B and an amino acid sequence encoded by an insertion in exon 6; and (b) classifying the mammal as likely to respond to the treatment if the mammal contains the cells, or classifying the mammal as not being likely to respond to the treatment if the mammal does not contain the cells. The cytokine can be IFN-α, IL-1RA, IL-6, MCP-1, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, or TNF-α. The TLR can be TLR7, TLR8, or TLR9. The mammal can be a human. The one or more control mammals can be healthy humans. The cells and the control cells can be peripheral blood mononuclear cells or whole blood cells. The level of IRF-5 polypeptide in the mammal can be greater than the average level of IRF-5 polypeptide in control cells from at least 10 control mammals, or greater than the average level of IRF-5 polypeptide in control cells from at least 20 control mammals. The determining step can include measuring the level of IRF-5 mRNA encoding the IRF-5 polypeptide, or measuring the level of IRF-5 polypeptide. The method can further include determining whether a biological sample from the mammal contains elevated levels of IFN-α, IL-1RA, IL-6, MCP-1, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, or TNF-α.

Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention pertains. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used to practice the invention, suitable methods and materials are described below. All publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, will control. In addition, the materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting.

The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims.

DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 a depicts the mRNA isoforms of IRF-5. Three sets of isoforms derive from three alternative promoters in the IRF-5 5′ region. The locations of the exons encoding DNA binding, PEST, and protein interaction domains, as well as the 3′ UTR, are annotated. Protein translation begins at a consensus ATG that is 10 bp from the 5′ end of exon 2. The location of the rs2004640 SNP, 2 bp downstream of exon-1B, is shown in the box [wild type sequence (top), SEQ ID NO:251; variant sequence (bottom), SEQ ID NO:252]. Two polyadenylation sites are present in the IRF-5 3′ UTR, and the lengths of the 3′ UTRs for V5, V6, V7 and V8 are unknown. The exon/intron structures are not shown to scale. FIG. 1 b is a series of graphs summarizing the data from TaqMan real-time quantitative RT-PCR analysis for exon-1A, -1B, and -1C associated transcripts. Each bar represents the mean±SEM of expression levels (N=8 SLE cases for each genotype; similar data was obtained for normal controls). Delta Cts were calculated from duplicate samples normalized to human β2-microglobulin, and converted to linear fold-differences.

FIG. 2 is a graph showing levels of IRF-5 mRNA as determined by microarray, compared between EBV transformed cell lines from CEPH individuals typed for rs2004640 and rs2280714. Identical findings were observed when only CEPH founders were examined.

FIG. 3 a and FIG. 3 b are graphs showing levels of IRF-5 measured by Affymetrix microarrays, compared in whole blood (N=37; FIG. 3 a) and in PBMCs (N=41; FIG. 3 b) in two sets of independent SLE cases. Total IRF-5 levels were compared by rs2280714 genotype in whole blood SLE samples: TT vs. TC, P=0.01; TC vs. CC, P=0.0006; TT vs. CC, P=0.000002. A similar analysis was performed for the SLE PBMC samples: TT vs. TC, P=NS; TC vs. CC, P=0.0004; TT vs. CC, P=0.000006.

FIG. 4 is a depiction of the SLE risk haplotype, showing both the rs2004640 T allele (green) and the rs2280714 T allele (blue). Haplotype frequencies of CEPH founders, as determined by Haploview, are shown. rs729302 is located 5′ of the haplotype marked by rs2004640, rs752637, and rs2280714.

FIG. 5 is a graph showing levels of expression of the long IRF-5 isoform (IRF5_Long), the short IRF-5 isoform (IRF5_Short), or both isoforms (IRF5_Common) as determined in individuals homozygous for the rs10954213 A allele (gray bars), heterozygous for the rs10954213 A allele (striped bars), or homozygous for the rs10954213 G allele (white bars).

FIG. 6 is a graph plotting expression levels of IRF5 mRNA in CEU cell lines carrying various genotypes for rs2004640 and rs10954213.

FIG. 7 is a graph plotting microarray expression levels of IRF5 in whole blood RNA samples from SLE patients. Each symbol represents the expression level in a single patient.

FIG. 8 is a schematic of the 3′ UTR region of IRF5.

FIG. 9 is a pair of graphs plotting levels of IRF5 isoforms carrying the short (left panel) or long (right panel) 3′ UTR, as determined by quantitative TaqMan RT-PCR in EBV cell lines (N=9) and in control PBMCs (N=14).

FIG. 10 is a graph plotting the decay of beta-globin 3′ IRF5 UTR mRNAs following suppression of new transcription with doxycycline. Results represent 4 independent experiments. *P<0.05; **P<0.01.

FIG. 11 is a diagram showing the location of the three common functional alleles identified in IRF5. The exon 1b splice site is shown on the left [rs2004640; variant sequence (top), SEQ ID NO:253; wild type sequence (bottom), SEQ ID NO:254]. The exon 6 insertion/deletion is shown in the center [amino acid sequence with insertion (top), SEQ ID NO:255; nucleic acid sequence with insertion (second line), SEQ ID NO:256; nucleic acid sequence with deletion (third line), SEQ ID NO:257; amino acid sequence with deletion (bottom), SEQ ID NO:258]. The 3′ untranslated region (UTR) polyA signal (rs10954213) is shown on the right.

FIG. 12 is a diagram showing IRF5 exon 6 mRNA isoforms determined by the common indel and two alternatively spliced exon 6 start sites (SS1 and SS2). The expected full-length protein isoform lengths in amino acids (aa) are noted. The predicted lengths of PCR fragments from an exon 1B primer site to a region just downstream of the exon 6 indel are shown for each of the isoforms.

FIG. 13 is a summary of IRF5 haplotypes and their association to SLE.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

This document relates to methods and materials involved in diagnosing SLE in a mammal, assessing a mammal's susceptibility to develop SLE, and determining whether a mammal is likely to respond to therapy directed toward IRF-5. For example, this document relates to materials and methods for determining whether a mammal contains one or more IRF-5 variants, contains an IRF-5 mRNA that results from alternative splicing or alternative polyadenylation due to the presence of one or more IRF-5 variants, or for determining whether a mammal contains cells in which IRF-5 is expressed at level that is more or less than the average level of IRF-5 expression observed in control cells obtained from control mammals. In some embodiments, for example, a mammal can be diagnosed as having or being at risk of developing SLE if it is determined that the mammal contains one or more IRF-5 variants (e.g., an rs2004640 T allele, an rs2280714 T allele, an rs2070197 C allele, an rs10954213 A allele, and/or an exon 6 insertion allele).

In some embodiments, a mammal can be diagnosed as having or being at risk of developing SLE if it is determined that the mammal contains an IRF-5 mRNA comprising exon-1B, a truncated 3′ UTR, and/or an exon 6 insertion, as described herein. In some cases, a mammal can be diagnosed as having or being at risk for SLE if it is determined that the mammal contains cells that express a level of IRF-5 mRNA containing exon-1B and/or a truncated 3′ UTR and/or an exon 6 insertion that is greater than the level of an IRF-5 mRNA expressed in control cells from control mammals. In still other embodiments, a mammal can be diagnosed as having or being at risk of developing SLE if it is determined that the mammal contains cells having a level of IRF-5 polypeptide that is higher than the average level of IRF-5 polypeptide in control cells obtained from control mammals.

The mammal can be any mammal such as a human, dog, mouse, or rat. Nucleic acids or polypeptides from any cell type can be isolated and evaluated. For example, whole blood cells, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PMBC), total white blood cells, lymph node cells, spleen cells, or tonsil cells can be isolated from a human patient and evaluated to determine if that patient contains one or more IRF-5 variants (e.g., an rs2004640 T allele, an rs2280714 T allele, an rs10954213 A allele, or rs2070197 C allele), an IRF-5 mRNA containing exon-1B and/or a truncated 3′ UTR and/or an exon 6 insertion, or cells that express IRF-5 at a level that is greater or less than the average level of expression observed in control cells.

As used herein, “IRF-5 variant” and “IRF-5 nucleotide sequence variant” refer to any alteration in an IRF-5 reference sequence. IRF-5 variants include variations that occur in coding and non-coding regions, including exons, introns, and untranslated sequences. As used herein, “untranslated sequence” includes 5′ and 3′ flanking regions that are outside of the messenger RNA (mRNA) as well as 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions (5′-UTR or 3′-UTR) that are part of the mRNA, but are not translated. Nucleotides are referred to herein by the standard one-letter designation (A, C, G, or T).

In some embodiments, an IRF-5 nucleotide sequence variant results in an IRF-5 mRNA having an altered nucleotide sequence (e.g., a splice variant that includes exon 1B and/or a variant that includes additional nucleotides in exon 6), or an IRF-5 polypeptide having an altered amino acid sequence (e.g., a polypeptide including a sequence encoded by exon 1B and/or a sequence encoded by an insertion in exon 6). The term “polypeptide” refers to a chain of at least four amino acid residues (e.g., 4-8, 9-12, 13-15, 16-18, 19-21, 22-50, 51-75, 76-100, 101-125 residues, or a full-length IRF-5 polypeptide). IRF-5 polypeptides may or may not have activity, or may have altered activity relative to a reference IRF-5 polypeptide. In some embodiments, polypeptides having an altered amino acid sequence can be useful for diagnostic purposes (e.g., for producing antibodies having specific binding affinity for variant IRF-5 polypeptides).

The presence or absence of IRF-5 nucleotide sequence variants can be determined using any suitable method, including methods that are standard in the art, for example. nucleotide sequence variants can be detected, for example, by sequencing exons, introns, 5′ untranslated sequences, or 3′ untranslated sequences, by performing allele-specific hybridization, allele-specific restriction digests, mutation specific polymerase chain reactions (MSPCR), by single-stranded conformational polymorphism (SSCP) detection (Schafer et al. (1995) Nat. Biotechnol. 15:33-39), denaturing high performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC, Underhill et al. (1997) Genome Res. 7:996-1005), primer extension of multiplex products (e.g., as described herein), infrared matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (IR-MALDI) mass spectrometry (WO 99/57318), and combinations of such methods.

Genomic DNA generally is used in the analysis of IRF-5 nucleotide sequence variants, although mRNA also can be used. Genomic DNA is typically extracted from a biological sample such as a peripheral blood sample, but can be extracted from other biological samples, including tissues (e.g., mucosal scrapings of the lining of the mouth or from renal or hepatic tissue). Routine methods can be used to extract genomic DNA from a blood or tissue sample, including, for example, phenol extraction. Alternatively, genomic DNA can be extracted with kits such as the QIAAMP® Tissue Kit (QIAGEN®, Chatsworth, Calif.), WIZARD® Genomic DNA purification kit (PROMEGA™) and the A.S.A.P.™ Genomic DNA isolation kit (BOEHRINGER MANNHEIM™, Indianapolis, Ind.).

Typically, an amplification step is performed before proceeding with the detection method. For example, exons or introns of the IRF-5 gene can be amplified then directly sequenced. Dye primer sequencing can be used to increase the accuracy of detecting heterozygous samples.

Allele specific hybridization also can be used to detect sequence variants, including complete haplotypes of a subject (e.g., a mammal such as a human). See, Stoneking et al. (1991) Am. J. Hum. Genet. 48:370-382; and Prince et al. (2001) Genome Res. 11:152-162. In practice, samples of DNA or RNA from one or more mammals can be amplified using pairs of primers and the resulting amplification products can be immobilized on a substrate (e.g., in discrete regions). Hybridization conditions are selected such that a nucleic acid probe can specifically bind to the sequence of interest, e.g., the variant nucleic acid sequence. Such hybridizations typically are performed under high stringency as some sequence variants include only a single nucleotide difference. As used herein, high stringency conditions include the use of low ionic strength solutions and high temperatures for washing. In particular, under high stringency conditions, nucleic acid molecules are hybridized at 42° C. in 2×SSC (0.3 M NaCl/0.03 M sodium citrate) with 0.1% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and washed in 0.1×SSC (0.015 M NaCl/0.0015 M sodium citrate), 0.1% SDS at 65° C. Hybridization conditions can be adjusted to account for unique features of the nucleic acid molecule, including length and sequence composition. Probes can be labeled (e.g., fluorescently) to facilitate detection. In some embodiments, one of the primers used in the amplification reaction is biotinylated (e.g., 5′ end of reverse primer) and the resulting biotinylated amplification product is immobilized on an avidin or streptavidin coated substrate.

Allele-specific restriction digests can be performed in the following manner. For nucleotide sequence variants that introduce a restriction site, restriction digest with the particular restriction enzyme can differentiate the alleles. For sequence variants that do not alter a common restriction site, mutagenic primers can be designed that introduce a restriction site when the variant allele is present or when the wild type allele is present. A portion of an IRF-5 nucleic acid can be amplified using the mutagenic primer and a wild type primer, followed by digest with the appropriate restriction endonuclease.

Certain variants, such as insertions or deletions of one or more nucleotides, change the size of the DNA fragment encompassing the variant. The insertion or deletion of nucleotides can be assessed by amplifying the region encompassing the variant and determining the size of the amplified products in comparison with size standards. For example, a region of an IRF-5 gene can be amplified using a primer set from either side of the variant. One of the primers is typically labeled, for example, with a fluorescent moiety, to facilitate sizing. The amplified products can be electrophoresed through acrylamide gels with a set of size standards that are labeled with a fluorescent moiety that differs from the primer.

PCR conditions and primers can be developed that amplify a product only when the variant allele is present or only when the wild type allele is present (MSPCR or allele-specific PCR). For example, patient DNA and a control can be amplified separately using either a wild type primer or a primer specific for the variant allele. Each set of reactions is then examined for the presence of amplification products using standard methods to visualize the DNA. For example, the reactions can be electrophoresed through an agarose gel and the DNA visualized by staining with ethidium bromide or other DNA intercalating dye. In DNA samples from heterozygous patients, reaction products would be detected with each set of primers. Patient samples containing solely the wild type allele would have amplification products only in the reaction using the wild type primer. Similarly, patient samples containing solely the variant allele would have amplification products only in the reaction using the variant primer. Allele-specific PCR also can be performed using allele-specific primers that introduce priming sites for two universal energy-transfer-labeled primers (e.g., one primer labeled with a green dye such as fluoroscein and one primer labeled with a red dye such as sulforhodamine). Amplification products can be analyzed for green and red fluorescence in a plate reader. See, Myakishev et al. (2001) Genome 11(1):163-169.

Mismatch cleavage methods also can be used to detect differing sequences by PCR amplification, followed by hybridization with the wild type sequence and cleavage at points of mismatch. Chemical reagents, such as carbodiimide or hydroxylamine and osmium tetroxide can be used to modify mismatched nucleotides to facilitate cleavage.

IRF-5 mRNA isoforms can be evaluated using any suitable method, including those known in the art. For example, northern blotting, slot blotting, chip hybridization techniques, or RT-PCR-based methods can be used to determine whether a mammal contains an IRF-5 mRNA that includes exon-1B or that has a truncated 3′ UTR.

When IRF-5 expression is evaluated, the expression level can be greater than or less than the average level observed in control cells obtained from control mammals. Typically, IRF-5 can be classified as being expressed at a level that is greater than or less than the average level observed in control cells if the expression levels differ by at least 1-fold (e.g., 1.5-fold, 2-fold, 3-fold, or more than 3-fold). In addition, the control cells typically are the same type of cells as those isolated from the mammal being evaluated. In some cases, the control cells can be isolated from one or more mammals that are from the same species as the mammal being evaluated. When diagnosing or predicting susceptibility to SLE, the control cells can be isolated from healthy mammals such as healthy humans who do not have SLE. Any number of control mammals can be used to obtain the control cells. For example, control cells can be obtained from one or more healthy mammals (e.g., at least 5, at least 10, at least 15, at least 20, or more than 20 control mammals).

Further, any suitable method can be used to determine whether or not IRF-5 is expressed at a level that is greater or less than the average level of expression observed in control cells. For example, the level of IRF-5 expression can be measured by assessing the level of IRF-5 mRNA expression. Levels of mRNA expression can be evaluated using, without limitation, northern blotting, slot blotting, quantitative RT-PCR, or chip hybridization techniques. Methods for chip hybridization assays include, without limitation, those described in published U.S. Patent Application No. 20040033498.

The level of IRF-5 expression also can be measured by assessing polypeptide levels. Polypeptide levels can be measured using any method, including immuno-based assays (e.g., ELISA), western blotting, or silver staining.

Research has demonstrated that IRF-5 is activated by TLR7 and TLR8, and that IRF-5 is a critical mediator of TLR7 signaling (Schoenemeyer et al. (2005) J. Biol. Chem. 280:17005-17012). TLR7, TLR8, and TLR9 form an evolutionarily related subgroup within the TLR superfamily (Chuang and Ulevitch (2000) Eur. Cytokine Netw. 11:372-378; and Du et al. (2000) Eur. Cytokine Netw. 11:362-371). As described in the Examples herein, subjects containing an rs2004604 T allele and an rs1965213 A allele can secrete elevated levels of cytokines, and also display an enhanced response to TLR7 and IFN-α signaling as compared to subjects having an rs2004640 G allele and an rs1954213 G allele. Thus, the presence of the aforementioned IRF-5 alleles (e.g., the combination of alleles in haplotype 1 described in the Examples herein), or increased IRF-5 levels, also can be ascertained in methods to determine whether a mammal (e.g., a human) is likely to respond to a therapy directed toward IRF-5 (e.g., a therapy aimed at reducing IRF-5 levels), a therapy directed toward a TLR (e.g., TLR7, TLR8, or TLR9), or a therapy directed toward one or more cytokines (e.g., IRF-5 mediated cytokines such as IFN-α, interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA), IL-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), macrophage inflammatory protein-1α, (MIP-1α), MIP-1β, and TNF-α). In some embodiments, the mammal can be diagnosed with SLE. By “respond” is meant that one or more symptoms of SLE are reduced by any amount (e.g., reduced by 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 100%). Symptoms of SLE include, for example, arthralgia/arthritis, muscle pain, avascular necrosis, and osteoporosis, pericarditis, myocarditis, endocarditis, coronary artery problems, kidney problems, pleurisy, pneumonitis, chronic diffuse interstitial lung disease, pulmonary embolism, pulmonary hypertension, liver problems, lupus headache, seizures, CNS vasculitis, psychosis, mouth/nose ulcers, malar rash, discoid rash, hair loss, photosensitivity, hives, Raynaud's phenomenon, purpura, livedo reticularis, anemia, thrombocytopenia, leukopenia, fatigue, fever, weight loss/gain, eye problems, and gastrointestinal problems.

In some embodiments, a method that includes determining whether a mammal contains an IRF-5 variant can further include determining whether cytokine levels are increased in the mammal. For example, a method provided herein can include measuring the level of an IRF-5 mediated cytokine such as IFN-α, IL-1RA, IL-6, MCP-1, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, and TNF-α. A biological sample from a mammal having an SLE risk haplotype (haplotype 1 as described herein) that is determined to have elevated levels of one or more cytokines can be a further indication that the mammal has SLE or is predisposed to develop SLE.

Any suitable method can be used to measure the level of a cytokine in a biological sample from a mammal. For example, a whole blood sample or a fraction of a blood sample (e.g., peripheral blood mononuclear cells; PMBC) from a mammal can be obtained, and the level of one or more cytokines in the sample can be determined.

When cytokine expression is evaluated, the expression level can be greater than or less than the average level observed in control cells obtained from control mammals. Typically, cytokines can be classified as being expressed at a level that is greater than or less than the average level observed in control cells if the expression levels differ by at least 1-fold (e.g., 1.5-fold, 2-fold, 3-fold, or more than 3-fold). In addition, the control cells typically are the same type of cells as those isolated from the mammal being evaluated. In some cases, the control cells can be isolated from one or more mammals that are from the same species as the mammal being evaluated. When diagnosing or predicting susceptibility to SLE, the control cells can be isolated from healthy mammals such as healthy humans who do not have SLE. Any number of control mammals can be used to obtain the control cells. For example, control cells can be obtained from one or more healthy mammals (e.g., at least 5, at least 10, at least 15, at least 20, or more than 20 control mammals).

Any suitable method can be used to determine whether or not a particular cytokine is expressed at a level that is greater or less than the average level of expression observed in control cells. As described above for IRF-5, for example, the level of expression of a cytokine such as TNF-α can be measured by assessing the level of TNF-α mRNA expression or by assessing polypeptide levels.

Agents targeted to IRF-5, TLRs, or cytokines such as those listed herein can be, for example, drug, small molecules, antibodies or antibody fragments, such as Fab′ fragments, F(ab′)₂ fragments, or scFv fragments, antisense oligonucleotides, interfering RNAs (RNAis), or combinations thereof.

Methods for producing antibodies and antibody fragments are known in the art. Chimeric antibodies and humanized antibodies made from non-human (e.g., mouse, rat, gerbil, or hamster) antibodies also may be useful. Chimeric and humanized monoclonal antibodies can be produced by recombinant DNA techniques known in the art, for example, using methods described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,816,567; 5,482,856; 5,565,332; 6,054,297; and 6,808,901.

Antisense oligonucleotides typically are at least 8 nucleotides in length, and hybridize to an IRF-5, TLR, or cytokine transcript. For example, a nucleic acid can be about 8, 9, 10-20 (e.g., 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 nucleotides in length), 15-20, 18-25, or 20-50 nucleotides in length. In other embodiments, antisense molecules can be used that are greater than 50 nucleotides in length. As used herein, the term “oligonucleotide” refers to an oligomer or polymer of ribonucleic acid (RNA) or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or analogs thereof. Nucleic acid analogs can be modified at the base moiety, sugar moiety, or phosphate backbone to improve, for example, stability, hybridization, or solubility of a nucleic acid. Modifications at the base moiety include, without limitation, substitution of deoxyuridine for deoxythymidine, substitution of 5-methyl-2′-deoxycytidine or 5-bromo-2′-deoxycytidine for deoxycytidine, and any other suitable base substitution. Modifications of the sugar moiety can include, for example, modification of the 2′ hydroxyl of the ribose sugar to form 2′-O-methyl or 2′-O-allyl sugars. The deoxyribose phosphate backbone can be modified to produce morpholino nucleic acids, in which each base moiety is linked to a six-membered, morpholino ring, or peptide nucleic acids, in which the deoxyphosphate backbone is replaced by a pseudopeptide backbone (e.g., an aminoethylglycine backbone) and the four bases are retained. See, for example, Summerton and Weller (1997) Antisense Nucleic Acid Drug Dev. 7:187-195; and Hyrup et al. (1996) Bioorgan. Med. Chem. 4:5-23. In addition, the deoxyphosphate backbone can be replaced with, for example, a phosphorothioate or phosphorodithioate backbone, a phosphoroamidite, or an alkyl phosphotriester backbone. See, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,469,863; 5,235,033; 5,750,666; and 5,596,086 for methods of preparing oligonucleotides with modified backbones.

Methods for synthesizing antisense oligonucleotides are known in the art, including solid phase synthesis techniques. Equipment for such synthesis is commercially available from several vendors including, for example, Applied Biosystems (Foster City, Calif.). Alternatively, expression vectors that contain a regulatory element that directs production of an antisense transcript can be used to produce antisense molecules.

It is understood in the art that the sequence of an antisense oligonucleotide need not be 100% complementary to that of its target nucleic acid to be hybridizable under physiological conditions. Antisense oligonucleotides hybridize under physiological conditions when binding of the oligonucleotide to the native nucleic acid interferes with the normal function of the native nucleic acid, and non-specific binding to non-target sequences is minimal.

Target sites for antisense oligonucleotides include the regions encompassing the translation initiation or termination codon of the open reading frame (ORF) of the gene. In addition, the ORF has been targeted effectively in antisense technology, as have the 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions. Furthermore, antisense oligonucleotides have been successfully directed at intron regions and intron-exon junction regions. Further criteria can be applied to the design of antisense oligonucleotides. Such criteria are well known in the art, and are widely used, for example, in the design of oligonucleotide primers. These criteria include the lack of predicted secondary structure of a potential antisense oligonucleotide, an appropriate G and C nucleotide content (e.g., approximately 50%), and the absence of sequence motifs such as single nucleotide repeats (e.g., GGGG runs). The effectiveness of antisense oligonucleotides at modulating expression of a nucleic acid can be evaluated by measuring levels of the targeted mRNA or polypeptide (e.g., by Northern blotting, RT-PCR, Western blotting, ELISA, or immunohistochemical staining).

Double-stranded interfering RNA (RNAi) homologous to IRF-5 or cytokine DNA also can be used to reduce expression and consequently, activity, of IRF-5 or cytokines. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,933,146; Fire et al. (1998) Nature 391:806-811; Romano and Masino (1992) Mol. Microbiol. 6:3343-3353; Cogoni et al. (1996) EMBO J. 15:3153-3163; Cogoni and Masino (1999) Nature 399:166-169; Misquitta and Paterson (1999) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:1451-1456; and Kennerdell and Carthew (1998) Cell 95:1017-1026. Sense and anti-sense RNA strands of RNAi can be individually constructed using chemical synthesis and enzymatic ligation reactions using procedures known in the art. For example, each strand can be chemically synthesized using naturally occurring nucleotides or nucleic acid analogs. The sense or anti-sense strand also can be produced biologically using an expression vector into which a target sequence (full-length or a fragment) has been subcloned in a sense or anti-sense orientation. The sense and anti-sense RNA strands can be annealed in vitro before delivery of the dsRNA to cells. Alternatively, annealing can occur in vivo after the sense and anti-sense strands are sequentially delivered to the tumor vasculature or to tumor cells.

The invention will be further described in the following examples, which do not limit the scope of the invention described in the claims.

EXAMPLES Example 1 A Common IRF-5 Haplotype that Regulates mRNA Splicing and Expression and is Associated with Increased Genetic Risk in Human SLE Materials and Methods

Clinical Samples: A U.S. Caucasian SLE family collection of 187 sib-pair and 223 trio pedigrees was recruited at the University of Minnesota. An additional 63 trios from the NIAMS-sponsored Lupus Multiplex Registry at Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation were included in the analysis. The overall U.S. family cohort was comprised of 681 SLE cases and 824 other family members. 459 probands from the U.S. family collection, 266 cases from the Hopkins Lupus Cohort, 41 controls from Minnesota, and 1393 controls of European ancestry from the New York Health Project (Mitchell et al. (2004) J. Urban Health 81:301-310) collection were genotyped for the case/control analysis.

Three additional SLE case/control cohorts were studied. A cohort of 444 Spanish patients with SLE and 541 controls were collected in several clinics in the Andalucia region of Southern Spain. All individuals were of Spanish Caucasian ancestry. A second cohort of 284 patients SLE patients and 279 matched controls were collected through a multi-center collaboration in Argentina. Individuals were of Caucasian (72.5%) and mixed (20%) ancestry. Six percent were of Amerindian (n=1), Asian (n=2), or unknown ancestry (n=22). A third set of 208 ethnic Swedish patients and 254 controls from the Stockholm-Uppsala area were studied (no overlap with the previously published cases; Sigurdsson et al. (2005) Am. J. Hum. Genet. 76:528-537). All patients fulfilled the revised American College of Rheumatology criteria for SLE (Hochberg (1997) Arthritis Rheum. 40:1725). These studies were approved by the Human Subject Institutional Review Boards at each institution, and informed consent was obtained from all subjects.

Genotyping: Four polymorphisms from IRF5 (rs729302, rs2004640, rs752637, and rs2280714) were genotyped in the 470 families by primer extension of multiplex products with detection by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectroscopy using a Sequenom platform. Primer sequences were: rs729302 forward, 5′-AGCGGATAACAAATAGACCAGAGACCAGGG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:1); rs729302 reverse, 5′-AGCGGATAACAAGTCTAAGTGAGTGGCAGG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:2); rs729302 extension, 5′-ATGGGACAAGGTGAAGAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:3); rs2004640 forward, 5′-AGCGGATAACAGGCGCTTTGGAAGTCCCAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:4); rs2004640 reverse, 5′-AGCGGATAACATGAAGACTGGAGTAGGGCG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:5); rs2004640 extension, 5′-CCCTGCTGTAGGCACCC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:6); rs752637 forward, 5′-AGCGGATAACTCTAAAGGCCCTACTTTGGG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:7); rs752637 reverse, 5′-AGCGGATAACAAAGGTGCCCAGAAAGAAGC′3-(SEQ ID NO:8); rs752637 extension, 5′-CTGACCCTGGGAGGAAGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:9); rs2280714 forward, 5′-AGCGGATAACCCATAAATTCTGACCCTGGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:10); rs2280714 reverse, 5′-AGCGGATAACAGGAGGAGTAAGCAAGG AAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:11); rs2280714 extension, 5′-TTCTGACCCTGGCAGGTCC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:12). The average genotype completeness for the four assays was 98.3%. The genotyping consensus error rate was 0.7% (9 errors in Mendelian inheritance from 1288 parent-offspring transmissions—all errors were zeroed out). The typing of rs2280714 did not include the OMRF trios.

For the U.S. case-control studies, rs2004640 was typed by TaqMan in the Hopkins cases and in the MN and NYHP controls, and by Sequenom for all other samples. rs2004640 primers were: forward, 5′-CAGCTGCGCCTGGAAAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:13); reverse, 5′-GGGAGGCGCTTTGGAAGT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:14); extension (vic), 5′-TGTAGGCACCCCCCCG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:15); extension (fam), 5′-TGTAGGCACCCACCCG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:16). Forty individuals were genotyped on both platforms with 100% concordance of results. Genotyping of rs2004640 was performed separately for the Spanish, Swedish and Argentina cases and controls. Briefly, these three sets were genotyped at the Rudbeck Laboratory in Uppsala using TaqMan assay-on-demand from ABI for rs2004640. The average genotype completeness was 99% for Swedish, 98% for Argentina and 86% for Spanish samples. rs752637 also was typed by TaqMan using the following primers: forward, 5′-GCAAAAGGTGCCCAGAAAG AAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:17); reverse, 5′-TCCCCTGTACCCTGGTCTTC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:18); extension (vic), 5′-CTTCTTTCAGCTTCCTC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:19); and extension (fam), 5′-TCTTTCGGCTTCCTC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:20).

rs2280714 was typed for the case-control studies on both the Sequenom platform and using a TaqMan assay (Rudbeck Laboratory). Over 1100 individuals were typed on both platforms with 98.2% concordance of results. The following samples were not typed for rs2280714: 63 OMRF trios, 96 Spanish SLE cases, 126 Swedish cases, and 161 Swedish controls. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium P values for rs2004640 and rs2280714 for each population are presented in Table 6.

Statistical Analysis: Family-based Association Analysis—The Transmission Disequilibrium Test (TDT) was performed using Haploview v3.2 (available on the World Wide Web at broad.mit.edu/mpg/haploview/) under default settings. Haploview v3.2 examines the transmission patterns of all complete trios within each pedigree. To assess the statistical significance of the results, the transmitted/untransmitted status of each genotype and haplotype was randomly permutated for 1,000,000 iterations and the best chi-square value generated for each permutated dataset was recorded. The number of times the permutated chi-square value exceeded the nominal chi-square value was divided by the number of iterations (1,000,000) to generate the permutated P value. The Pedigree Disequilibrium Test (PDT) was performed as described (Martin et al. (2000) Am. J. Hum. Genet. 67:146-154).

Case Control Analysis—χ² analysis was used to evaluate the significance of differences in genotype and allele frequencies in the case-control samples. The allele frequencies for cases and controls were used to calculate the Odds Ratio (OR) and the 95% confidence interval using Woolf's method (ln(OR)+−1.96(1/A+1/B+1/C+1/D)^0.5.). The chi-square value was calculated from the 2×2 contingency tables and p-values were determined using 1 degree of freedom.

Meta Analysis—Published results of the association of rs2004640 with SLE in Finnish and Swedish collections (Sigurdsson et al. supra) were combined with results for rs2004640 in SLE cases collected in Argentina, Spain, Sweden and the United States using the Mantel-Haenszel meta-analysis of the odds ratios (ORs; Lohmueller et al. (2003) Nat. Genet. 33:177-182; Woolson and Bean (1982) Stat. Med. 1:37-39).

Determination and quantification of IRF5 UTR-specific transcripts: Total RNA from SLE patients carrying the various genotypes was purified from PBMCs with TRIZOL reagent (Invitrogen). 2 μg of total RNA was reverse transcribed with 2 U of MultiScribe transcriptase in the PCR buffer II containing 5 mM MgCl₂, 1 mM dNTPs, 0.4 U of RNase inhibitor and 2.5 μM random hexamers (all results were confirmed using oligo-dT primed cDNA). All reagents were from Applied Biosystems. Synthesis was performed at 42° C. for 45 minutes and the reaction was terminated at 95° C. for 5 minutes.

IRF-5 isoforms with distinct 5′-UTRs were quantified by real-time TaqMan-PCR on ABI PRISM 7700 Sequence Detector (Applied Biosystems) with SDS 1.9.1 software. Primers used to distinguish PCR products with different UTRs were: forward (A) Exon-1A-UTR 5′-ACGCAGGCGCACCGCAGACA-3′ (SEQ ID NO:21), (B) Exon-1B-UTR: 5′-AGCTGCGCCTGGAAAGCGAGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:22), (C) Exon1C-UTR: 5′-AGGCGGCACTAGGCAGGTGCAAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:23), and a common reverse primer lying in exon 3 5′-TCGTAGATCTTGTAGGGCTGAGGTGGCA-3′ (SEQ ID NO:24). TaqMan probe labeled with FAM and TAMRA was 5′-CCATGAACCAGTCCATCCCAGTGGCTCCCACC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:25). 45 or 52 cycles of two-step PCR were run in a buffer containing 1.5 mM MgCl₂, 200 μM of each of dNTP, 0.5 U of Platinum Taq polymerase (Invitrogen), primer-probe mix and cDNA. Extension/elongation was maintained at 65° C. for 1 minute, while denaturation was at 95° C. for 15 seconds. Expression levels were normalized using human β2-microglobulin with commercial primer-probe mix (Applied Biosystems).

Standard PCR amplification of diverse isoforms of IRF-5 was performed with the same forward primers as for the TaqMan assay with reverse primer designed so as to allow amplification of all transcripts containing exon 8: 5′-GAAACTTGATCTCCAGGT CGGTCA-3′ (SEQ ID NO:26). Cycle conditions were: initial denaturation at 95° C. for 3 minutes, followed by 40 cycles of denaturation at 95° C. for 15 seconds, annealing at 60° C. for 15 seconds and elongation at 72° C. for 1.5 minutes. PCR was performed in a 25 μl reaction volume, with 0.5 U of Platinum Taq polymerase (Invitrogen) in the buffer supplied with enzyme. PCR products were electrophoresed on a 1.5% agarose gel.

The statistical analysis of isoform expression was performed using t-test included in GraphPad Software (World Wide Web at graphpad.com).

Cloning and sequencing of IRF-5 isoforms: To isolate novel isoforms, total RNA isolated from human PBMCs of two rs2004640 TG SLE patients was subjected to RT-PCR with the same forward primers matching to Exon1 used for the TaqMan RT-PCR assays, and a common reverse primer lying in the last exon: 5′-CTGAGAACATCTCCA GCAGCAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:27). PCR products were analyzed by gel electrophoresis and individual bands were cut out and purified. Sequencing was performed using the Big Dye reaction at the Uppsala Genome Center. Two novel transcripts named V10 and V11 were identified and deposited to GenBank under accession numbers DQ277633 and DQ277634, respectively.

IRF-5 expression analysis: Two IRF-5 region SNPs (rs2004640 and rs2280714) were genotyped using the Sequenom platform described above in 30 CEPH trios (CEU, 90 individuals) from the International Haplotype Map project (Altshuler et al. (2005) Nature 437:1299-1320) and the data was integrated into the Phase II data (HapMap data release #19) for 100 kb flanking IRF-5. In addition, three SNPs (rs726302, rs2004640, and rs2280714) were genotyped in the 233 CEPH individuals (14 extended pedigrees, including 21 trios that are part of the HapMap CEU samples, and 38 unrelated individuals) described in Morley et al. ((2004) Nature 430:743-747), using a Sequenom platform. Linear regression (R statistical package) was used to test the significance of association of genetic variants to IRF-5 expression levels using publicly available gene expression data (GEO accession number GSE1485, IRF-5 probe 205469_s_at; Morley et al. supra) in the 233 CEPH individuals, subdivided by (a) 42 unrelated founders included in the HapMap CEPH (CEU) population, (b) 92 unrelated individuals, and (c) all 233 individuals. Gene expression data were also obtained from the PBMCs of 37 SLE cases (Affymetrix U95A chips, IRF5 probe set 36465_at; Baechler et al. supra) and from PaxGene RNA from whole blood of 41 independent Caucasian SLE cases (Affymetrix 133A chips, IRF5 probe set 205469_s_at).

Enrichment of the IRF-5 rs2004640 T Allele in SLE

Four sets of SLE cases and controls from the United States, Spain, Sweden and Argentina (total of 1,661 cases and 2,508 controls) were genotyped, and association of the IRF-5 rs2004640 T allele was assessed using a standard case-control study design. In all sets, a significant enrichment of the T allele was observed in SLE cases as compared to matched controls (overall 60.4% in cases vs. 51.5% in controls, P=4.4×10⁻¹⁶; Table 1). The frequency of the T allele was lower in the Argentine sample possibly due to the mixed ethnicity of the individuals studied (see Example 1). Importantly, in a subset of 470 cases from the U.S. for which family members were available, a family-based association ruled out the possibility that stratification could explain the results (P=0.0006, Table 3).

When all available case/control data were examined (four independent cohorts described here, together with the two published cohorts from Sweden and Finland; Sigurdsson et al., supra), robust and consistent association of the rs2004640 T allele with SLE was observed, with individual odds ratios (OR) ranging between 1.31 and 1.84 (Table 1). Using the Mantel-Haenszel method for meta-analysis of ORs, the pooled OR for the rs2004640 SNP T allele was found to be 1.47 (1.36-1.60), with an overall P=4.2×10⁻²¹ (Table 1). A single copy of the rs2004640 T allele was found in 45% of cases and conferred modest risk (pooled OR=1.27, P=0.0031), while the 38% of cases homozygous for the T allele are at a greater risk for SLE (pooled OR=2.01, P=3.7×10⁻¹⁴; Table 2). Based on these results, dominant and recessive models of inheritance can be formally rejected, and the likely mode of inheritance is additive or multiplicative. Thus, the evidence for association of the T allele of rs2004640 is highly significant, well surpassing even correction for testing all common variants in the human genome.

Functional Consequences of the IFR-5 rs2004640 T Allele

Given the convincing data for association of IRF-5 with SLE risk, the potential functional consequences of the rs2004640 T allele were investigated. Examination of the genomic sequence of IRF-5 revealed that the rs2004640 T allele is located two bp downstream of the intron/exon border of exon-1B, creating a consensus GT donor splice site (FIG. 1 a). Thus, studies were conducted to determine if rs2004640 influenced IRF-5 splicing, which is highly complex (Mancl et al. (2005) J. Biol. Chem. 280:21078-21090). IRF-5 transcripts are initiated at one of three promoters, giving rise to transcripts containing exon-1A, exon-1B or exon-1C (FIG. 1 a). Transcripts initiated at exon-1A and exon-1B are constitutively expressed in plasmacytoid dendritic cells and B cells, while exon-1C bearing transcripts are inducible by type-I IFNs. In addition, multiple IRF-5 isoforms are initiated at each promoter, with 9 previously identified isoforms (V1-V9, FIG. 1 a).

To determine whether rs2004640 affected expression of IRF-5 transcripts bearing exon-1B, PBMCs were isolated from individuals carrying GG, GT or TT rs2004640 genotypes, and first strand cDNA was synthesized. Using specific primers to detect transcripts associated with each of the three exon 1 variants, it was observed that SLE patients and controls homozygous for the G allele expressed IRF-5 isoforms containing exon-1A and exon-1C, but not exon-1B. In contrast, individuals homozygous or heterozygous for the T allele expressed exon-1B, as well as both exon-1A and exon-1C, containing transcripts. TaqMan PCR assays clearly documented that exon-1B transcripts were only detectable in the presence of the rs2004640 T allele (FIG. 1 b). In all samples studied (N=20), exon-1A containing transcripts were more abundant than the other mRNA classes. Based on the above, it is apparent that only individuals with the rs2004640 T allele will express the multiple isoforms of IRF-5 initiated at exon-1B.

Given the association of the rs2004640 T allele to SLE and the fact that only individuals carrying the SNP express IRF-5 exon-1B transcripts, further studies were conducted to obtain additional IRF-5 isoforms. Two novel isoforms of IRF-5 were cloned from the peripheral blood mRNA of rs2004640 heterozygote donors: V10, which utilizes exon-1B and has an in-frame deletion of 30 nt at the beginning of exon 7, and a predicted protein 10 amino acids shorter than V2; and V11, a transcript derived from exon-1C with a 28 bp deletion of exon 3, predicted to encode a truncated protein translated from an alternate reading frame (FIG. 1 a). Several of these isoforms, including isoforms initiated at exon-1B, contain splicing variation in and around exon 6, which encodes part of an extended PEST domain. PEST domains are highly enriched for proline, glutamic acid, serine and threonine, and can be associated with control of protein stability. Several unique and constitutively expressed IRF-5 isoforms are initiated at exon-1B, and these isoforms may influence the function of IRF-5 or the transcriptional profile of IRF-5 target genes.

Association Between Elevated IFR-5 Expression and the Exon-1B Splice Site

Experiments were conducted to determine whether elevated expression of IRF-5 might be associated with the exon-1B splice site, using a common variant near IRF-5 that is one of the polymorphisms most strongly associated with variation in gene expression (Morley et al. (2004) Nature 430:743-747; and Cheung et al. (2005) Nature 437:1365-1369). This variant, the rs22807814 T allele, is about 5 Kb downstream of IRF-5, and has been identified as being, or being in strong linkage disequilibrium (LD) with, a cis-acting determinant of IRF-5 expression.

The relationship between rs2004640 and rs2280714 was evaluated in 30 independent CEPH trios from the HapMap project. D′ for the two SNPs is 0.96; i.e., nearly all copies of the splice site rs2004640 T allele are on haplotypes bearing the rs2280714 T allele. However, r² for these SNPs is only 0.66, since the downstream rs2280714 T allele is also found on haplotypes that lack the splice site rs2004640 T allele (see Table 3 and FIG. 4). While these two SNPs are strongly linked, the fact that the 3′ rs2280714 T allele can be observed in the absence of the upstream splice site SNP allowed determination of which variant is the best predictor of IRF-5 expression and also SLE risk.

The association of IRF-5 expression to the two SNPs was tested in expression data from EBV-transformed B cells of CEPH family members, and from peripheral blood cells of two independent sets of SLE cases. The rs2004640 and rs2280714 alleles were genotyped in 233 CEPH individuals, used for a genome-wide survey of determinants of gene expression (Morley et al. supra), and examined for association to IRF-5 expression. The T alleles of both rs2004640 and rs2280714 were found to be associated with higher levels of IRF-5 mRNA expression (FIG. 2). However, the rs2280714 T allele was a better predictor of IRF-5 overexpression in 92 unrelated individuals than the rs2004640 T allele (P=2×10⁻¹⁶ vs. P=5.3×10⁻¹¹, respectively), and in the full data set of 233 individuals, consisting of 14 extended pedigrees and 38 unrelated individuals (FIG. 2). Similar findings were observed in the peripheral blood cells of two independent groups of SLE cases (FIGS. 3 a and 3 b). Based on these data, the hypothesis that the splice site rs2004640 SNP is the cis-acting variant controlling expression can be rejected, since rs2280714 remains significantly associated with IRF-5 expression (P=4.7×10⁻⁷) after logistic regression conditional on rs2004640, whereas rs2004640 no longer remains significant after controlling for rs2280714.

Using phase II HapMap genotype data (˜5 million SNPs across the genome), all available variants (including rs2004640 and rs2280714) within 100 kb of IRF-5 were tested for association to IRF-5 expression in EBV-transformed B-cells from 42 unrelated individuals from the HapMap CEPH (CEU) population. The rs2280714 variant and 4 polymorphisms that are perfect proxies of rs2280714 (r²=1.0) are the most strongly associated with IRF-5 gene expression (P=1.0×10⁻¹⁰, Table 4). Given that these variants are well downstream of IRF-5, and that they do not lie in a recognizable regulatory region, there may be additional genetic variation in tight LD with rs2280714 that drives the expression phenotype.

Association of IRF-5 with SLE

Studies were conducted to determine whether over-expression of IRF-5 (rs2280714), the presence of exon-1B initiated IRF-5 isoforms (rs2004640), or both, are associated with SLE. The fact that ˜14% of IRF-5 haplotypes are associated with over-expression, but lack the exon-1B splice site, allows the opportunity to test whether the allele associated with overexpression (rs2280714) is independently associated with SLE (Table 3). Indeed, in 470 SLE pedigrees, only haplotypes bearing the exon-1B splice site (rs2004640 T allele) show over-transmission using the transmission disequilibrium test 19 (208:149 T:U, P=0.0021; Table 3). Haplotypes associated with over-expression of IRF-5 (rs2280714 T allele) but lacking the exon-1B splice site show no evidence for risk to SLE (70:108 T:U; Table 3). Supporting the family-based analysis, there was no difference observed in the frequency of the rs2004640/rs2280714 ‘G/T’ haplotype between SLE cases (n=1358, 13%) and controls (n=2278, 15%; P=0.98; Table 5). Additionally, rs2280714 was not significantly associated with SLE in the case-control analysis after logistic regression conditional on rs2004640 (P=0.22). Thus, over-expression of IRF-5 in the absence of the exon-1B splice site does not confer risk to SLE.

Identification of the Cis-Acting Variant Linked to IRF-5 Over-Expression

Additional studies were conducted to determine whether the rs10954213 A allele is the cis-acting variant that causes IRF-5 over-expression, and whether the presence of this variant augments the risk to SLE conferred by the exon-1B splice site. The presence of the rs10954213 A allele results in a “short form” IRF-5 mRNA having a truncated 3′ UTR, as compared to the “long form” IRF-5 mRNA that is produced when an rs10954213 G allele is present. To measure mRNA expression, specific primers were used to amplify the short form IRF-5 isoform, the long form IRF-5 isoform, or both isoforms in samples from individuals homozygous or heterozygous for the rs10954213 A allele, as well as individuals homozygous for the rs10954213 G allele. As shown in FIG. 5, the short form was predominantly expressed in individuals having the rs10954213 A allele. Expression was significantly greater in homozygous individuals than in heterozygous individuals. The presence of an rs10954213 A allele did not preclude expression of the long form, but levels of the long form were significantly less than levels of the short form, particularly in individuals homozygous for the rs10954213 A allele. Further, the overall level of IRF-5 expression was significantly greater in individuals homozygous for the rs10954213 A allele than in individuals heterozygous for the allele (FIG. 5). In turn, the overall level of IRF-5 expression was significantly greater in individuals heterozygous for the rs10954213 A allele than in individuals homozygous for the rs10954213 G allele. Thus, the rs10954213 A allele is linked to increased expression levels of IRF-5.

Genetic analysis of IRF-5 haplotypes demonstrated that the presence of a short-form (rs10954213 A) allele does not confer significant risk for SLE unless an Exon-1B (rs2004640 T) allele also is present (Table 7). Further genetic analysis demonstrated that the presence of a short-form allele augments the risk conferred by the presence of an Exon-1B allele. As presented in Table 8, haplotypes are indicated such that the first letter represents the rs2004640 SNP and the second letter represents the rs10954213 SNP. “Hap1” and “Hap2” represent the two haplotypes present in each group of individuals. Thus, the first row of Table 8 contains data for individuals homozygous for the rs2004640 T allele and the rs10954213A allele, whereas the second row of Table 8 contains data for individuals homozygous for the rs2004640 T allele and heterozygous for the rs10954213 A allele. “2×” and “1×” thus refer to the number of copies of the risk alleles at each SNP. These data show that having the short-form allele augments the risk that is conferred by having the Exon-1B transcripts. The data also suggest that having the Exon-1B isoforms does not confer risk to SLE in the absence of the short-form allele, although those combinations of haplotypes (TG/TG and TG/GG) are relatively rare.

Cytokine Secretion in Response to TLR and IFN Signaling

PBMCs (˜1×10⁶ cells/ml) were collected from normal donors with various IRF-5 genotypes at the rs2004640 and rs10954213 alleles. Specifically, cells were collected from four donors having a TT/AA haplotype (i.e., homozygous for the rs2004640 T allele and homozygous for the rs10954213 A allele), and three donors having a GG/GG haplotype (i.e., homozygous for the rs2004640 G allele and homozygous for the rs10954213 G allele). Cells were stimulated with optimal concentrations of TLR7 ligand (R848), IFN-α, or CpG oligos. Controls were treated with phosphate buffered saline (PBS). Luminex assays were used to measure levels of various cytokines secreted after 6 hours of simulation. Specifically, levels of IL-1RA, IL-6, MPC-1, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, and TNF-α were measured using a Luminex xMAP system (Luminex Corp., Austin, Tex.). As shown in Table 9, cells harvested from individuals having a TT/AA haplotype secreted higher levels of the various cytokines in response to TLR and IFN signaling.

Taken together, the data presented herein confirm the association of IRF-5 to SLE, and identify the IRF-5 risk haplotype as the strongest genetic effect outside the HLA yet discovered in this disease. There are three functional variants within IRF-5: the rs2004640 T allele provides a splice donor site that allows expression of multiple IRF-5 isoforms containing exon-1B, while rs2280714 and its proxies, as well as rs10954213, are associated with elevated IRF-5 expression. The IRF-5 exon-1B isoforms are strongly linked to elevated expression of IRF-5 and to risk of SLE; over-expression of IRF-5 in the absence of exon-1B isoforms does not confer risk. Thus, over-expression of exon-1B transcripts may augment the risk to SLE.

TABLE 1 Case/control association analysis of rs2004640 T allele with SLE N^(a) T^(b) T freq. G^(c) G freq. OR (95% CI)^(d) χ² P Pooled OR^(e) Pooled P Argentina Cases 284 309 0.54 259 0.46 1.52 (1.20-1.93) 12.8 0.00035 1.45 (1.32-1.58) 4.4 × 10⁻¹⁶ Controls 279 245 0.44 313 0.56 Spain Cases 444 559 0.63 329 0.37 1.31 (1.09-1.57) 14.3 0.00016 Controls 541 589 0.54 493 0.46 Sweden-1 Cases 208 260 0.63 156 0.38 1.31 (1.01-1.71) 4.1 0.04268 Controls 254 284 0.56 224 0.44 U.S.A. Cases 725 879 0.61 571 0.39 1.47 (1.29-1.67) 34.8 3.6 × 10⁻⁹ Controls 1434 1467 0.51 1401 0.49 Sweden-2^(f) Cases 480 595 0.62 365 0.38 1.51 (1.21-1.87) 13.8 0.0002  1.59 (1.31-1.94) 7.1 × 10⁻⁷  Controls 256 266 0.52 246 0.48 Finland^(f) Cases 109 137 0.63 81 0.37 1.84 (1.27-2.66) 10.3 0.00133 Controls 121 116 0.48 126 0.52 Combined Cases 2250 2739 0.61 1761 0.39 1.47 (1.36-1.60) 4.2 × 10⁻²¹ Analysis Controls 2885 2967 0.51 2803 0.49 ^(a)Number of individuals ^(b)Number of T alleles of rs2004640 ^(c)Number of G alleles of rs2004640 ^(d)Odds ratio and 95% confidence intervals ^(e)Mantel-Haenszel test of pooled odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals ^(f)Data from Sigurdsson et al.

TABLE 2 Genotypic association of rs2004640 with SLE Genotype Cases Frequency Controls y χ² OR (95% CI) P^(a) N^(b) = 284 N = 282 Argentina GG  65 0.23   90 0.32 GT 129 0.45  135 0.48 GT v GG 1.32 (0.89-1.97) 1.9 0.1692 TT  90 0.32   57 0.20 TT v GG 2.19 (1.38-3.46) 11.2 0.0008 TT v GT + GG 1.83 (1.25-2.69) 9.7 0.0019 N = 445 N = 542 Spain GG  82 0.18  112 0.21 GT 165 0.37  269 0.49 GT v GG 0.84 (0.59-1.18) 1.0 0.3149 TT 198 0.45  161 0.30 TT v GG 1.68 (1.18-2.39) 8.4 0.0038 TT v GT + GG 1.90 (1.45-2.47) 23.1 1.6 × 10⁻⁶ N = 208 N = 254 Sweden GG  25 0.12   47 0.18 GT 106 0.51  130 0.51 GT v GG 1.53 (0.89-2.65) 2.3 0.1257 TT  77 0.37   77 0.30 TT v GG 1.88 (1.05-3.35) 4.6 0.0315 TT v GT + GG 1.35 (0.92-1.99) 2.3 0.1283 N = 624 N = 967 U.S. GG  93 0.15  204 0.21 GT 306 0.49  470 0.49 GT v GG 1.43 (1.07-1.90) 6.1 0.0138 TT 225 0.36  293 0.30 TT v GG 1.61 (1.25-2.28) 11.7 0.0006 TT v GT + GG 1.30 (1.05-1.61) 5.7 0.0167 N = 1561 N = 2045 All GG 265 0.17  453 0.22 Pooled OR^(c) Pooled P GT 706 0.45 1004 0.49 GT v GG 1.22 (1.02-1.47) 0.014 TT 590 0.38  588 0.29 TT v GG 1.78 (1.47-2.16) 2.8 × 10⁻⁹ TT v GT + GG 1.53 (1.33-1.76) 2.0 × 10⁻⁹ ^(a)P value, uncorrected for multiple tests, 1 degree of freedom ^(b)Number of individuals ^(c)Mantel-Haenszel test of pooled odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals

TABLE 3 TDT analysis of IRF-5 in 467 U.S. SLE Caucasian pedigrees Marker Allele Frequency ^(a) T ^(b) U ^(b) T/U ^(b) χ² Nominal P ^(c) Permuted P ^(d) rs729302 A 0.69 199 130 1.53 14.5 0.0001 0.0007 rs2004640 T 0.57 219 153 1.43 11.7 0.0006 0.0028 rs752637 G 0.68 199 161 1.24 4.0 0.0450 0.2999 rs2280714 A 0.72 153 127 1.20 2.4 0.1202 0.6248 Haplotype ^(a) Frequency T U T/U χ² Nominal P Permuted P ATGA 0.54 192 139 1.38 8.5 0.0035 0.0192 CGAG 0.15  69 101 0.69 5.7 0.0167 0.1093 AGAG 0.13  88  77 1.14 0.7 0.4047 1.0000 CGGA 0.10  52  79 0.66 5.3 0.0216 0.1424 CGAA 0.04  18  29 0.60 2.9 0.0897 0.5105 CTGA 0.02  16  11 1.54 1.2 0.2645 0.9048 XTXX ^(f) 0.56 208 149 1.39 9.8 0.0017 — XGXX ^(f) 0.42 227 285 0.80 6.6 0.0102 — ^(a) Frequency in parental chromosomes ^(b) Transmitted and untransmitted chromosomes, and the transmission ratio (T/U) ^(c) P value, uncorrected for multiple tests ^(d) P value from 1,000,000 random iterations of the genotype data, as described in methods ^(e) Haplotype consisting of markers; rs729302, rs2004640, rs752637, rs2280714 ^(f) Haplotypes carrying “T” or “G” allele of rs2004640

TABLE 4 Association of HapMap phase II variants to IRF-5 expression levels r² to Marker^(a) Chr Position^(b) MAF^(c) rs2280714^(d) P^(e) rs729302 7 128, 122, 922 0.32 0.09 0.2 rs2004640 7 128, 132, 263 0.49 0.68 6.0 × 10⁻⁸ rs752637 7 128, 133, 382 0.45 0.83 2.8 × 10⁻⁹ rs2280714 7 128, 148, 687 0.42 — 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁰ rs7789423 7 128, 175, 166 0.42 1.00 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁰ rs6948928 7 128, 177, 059 0.42 1.00 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁰ rs3857852 7 128, 211, 235 0.42 1.00 2.6 × 10⁻¹⁰ rs13221560 7 128, 217, 133 0.39 1.00 7.4 × 10⁻¹⁰ rs921403 7 128, 230, 682 0.43 0.97 4.0 × 10⁻¹⁰ rs10279821 7 128, 237, 505 0.41 0.97 4.9 × 10⁻¹⁰ rs10156169 7 128, 238, 529 0.42 0.93 3.4 × 10⁻¹⁰ ^(a)HapMap Phase II markers with P < 1.0 × 10⁻⁹ are shown, in addition to the results for IRF-5 region markers genotyped in the SLE families (rs729302, rs2004640, rs752637) ^(b)Position in HG16 (Build 34). ^(c)Minor Allele Frequency in HapMap CEPH (CEU) population. ^(d)Correlation to rs2280714. ^(e)P calculated using conditional linear regression, testing variants for association to IRF-5 expression in EBV-transformed B cells from CEPH individuals.

TABLE 5 IRF-5 haplotype frequency SLE cases and controls Haplotype^(a) rs2004640 rs2280714 Cases Frequency Controls Frequency χ² P^(b) N^(c) = 282 N = 262 Argentina T T 303 0.54 227 0.43 11.8 0.0006 G T 54 0.10 70 0.13 3.8 0.0501 G C 205 0.36 224 0.43 4.7 0.0309 N = 350 N = 527 Spain T T 419 0.60 547 0.52 10.8 0.0010 G T 109 0.16 167 0.16 0.0 0.9212 G C 155 0.22 316 0.30 13.2 0.0003 T C 17 0.02 25 0.02 0.0 0.9366 N = 82 N = 93 Sweden T T 99 0.60 109 0.59 0.1 0.7514 G T 29 0.18 32 0.17 0.2 0.6642 G C 36 0.22 44 0.24 0.0 0.9431 N = 649 N = 1405 U.S.A. T T 780 0.60 1422 0.51 32.0 1.6 × 10⁻⁸ G T 162 0.13 413 0.15 3.5 0.0599 G C 348 0.27 961 0.34 22.1 2.6 × 10⁻⁹ N = 1358 N = 2278 Pooled P^(d) ALL T T 1601 0.59 2305 0.51 1.9 × 10⁻¹³ G T 354 0.13 682 0.15 0.9842 G C 744 0.27 1545 0.34 2.5 × 10⁻¹⁰ T C 17 0.01 25 0.01 0.9366 ^(a)Haplotype of rs2004640 and rs2280714, phased using Haploview software. Only samples with complete genotype data were analyzed. ^(b)P value, uncorrected for multiple tests, 1 degree of freedom ^(c)Number of individuals ^(d)Pooled P value from Mantel-Haenszel test of pooled odds ratios

TABLE 6 Hardy-Wienberg equilibrium expectation test in control samples rs2004640 rs2280714 Population P^(a) P Argentina 0.62 1.00 Spain 0.99 0.20 Sweden 0.54 0.02 USA 0.54 0.68 ^(a)P value for deviation from genotype frequencies predicted under Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium expectations

TABLE 7 Genetic analysis of IRF-5 haplotypes

TABLE 8 Genetic analysis of IRF-5 haplotypes

TABLE 9 In vitro stimulation of PBMC with TLR7 ligand, IFNα, or CpG oligos

Example 2 Three Functional Variants of IRF-5 Define Risk and Protective Haplotypes for Human Lupus

Resequencing and genotyping in patients with SLE revealed evidence for three functional alleles of IRF5: the exon 1B splice site variant described above, a novel 30 bp in-frame insertion/deletion (indel) variant of exon 6 that alters a PEST domain region, and a novel variant in a conserved polyA⁺ signal sequence that alters the length of the 3′ UTR and stability of IRF5 mRNAs. Haplotypes of these three variants define at least three distinct levels of risk to SLE.

Materials and Methods

Whole blood donors and cell lines. Whole blood cells were collected from 5 healthy self-described European-ancestry donors who have the TT/AA genotype (rs2004640/rs10954213), 5 donors who have TG/AG genotype and 4 donors who have GG/GG genotype, and were used for quantitative PCR analyses. In addition, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infected immortalized B lymphocyte cell lines from CEPH family members were obtained from the Coriell Cell Repository and genotyped for rs2004640 and rs10954213. Three cell lines each for the TT/AA genotype (GM12239, GM12154, and GM12761), the TG/AG genotype (GM7034, GM7345, and GM11881), and the GG/GG genotype (GM12145, GM7000, and GM12155) were selected for Northern, qPCR and Western analyses. CEPH cells were cultured in RPMI1640 medium (Cellgro) supplemented with 2 mM L-glutamine and 15% fetal bovine serum at 37° C. in a humidified chamber with 5% CO₂. Tet-off 293 cells were purchased from BD Biosciences and were cultured in Eagle Minimum Essential Media (Invitrogen Life Technologies) with 10% FBS, 4 mM L-glutamine, 100 units/ml penicillin G and 100 μg/ml streptomycin.

RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis. Whole blood total RNA was extracted from healthy donors using RNeasy® Mini Kits (Qiagen). Poly-A⁺ RNA was extracted from CEPH cell lines using FastTrack® 2.0 Kits (Invitrogen). First-strand cDNAs were synthesized from RNAs using SuperScript II reverse transcriptase (Invitrogen) with Oligo(dT)12-18 primers (Invitrogen).

Quantitative PCR. Expression of IRF5 mRNA was quantified by real-time PCR with TaqMan assays using an ABI PRISM 7900HT Sequence Detector (Applied Biosystems). Primers and probes used to distinguish short form 3′ UTRs, long form 3′ UTRs, and all 3′ UTRs are listed in Table 10. A TaqMan® Gene Expression Assay (Applied Biosystems) was used for glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH). Fifty-five cycles of two-step PCR (95° C. for 15 seconds and 60° C. for 1 minute) were carried out for common primer and probe sets and GAPDH, and 55 cycles of three-step PCR (95° C. for 15 seconds, 48° C. for 15 seconds, and 60° C. for 40 seconds) were carried out for the short and long form IRF5 assays. PCR reaction mixtures contained 10 ng of cDNA from total RNAs or 2 ng of cDNA from poly-A⁻ RNAs, 1× TagMan® Universal PCR Master mix (Applied Biosystems), 1 μM each of forward and reverse primers, and 250 nM of TagMan® MGB Probe (Applied Biosystems). Expression levels were normalized to GAPDH expression.

Northern Blotting. 0.5 μg of poly-A⁺ RNA from CEPH cell lines was analyzed by Northern blotting. Poly-A RNA⁺ was denatured with glyoxile/dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) sample dye (NorthernMax-Gly Based system, Ambion), resolved on 1.2% agarose gels, and blotted onto BrightStar-Plus Nylon membranes (Ambion). Membranes were crosslinked with UV and hybridized for 16-18 hours with a ³²P-labeled probe from the IRF5 proximal 3′ UTR region and a with control GAPDH probe. Probes were generated by random primed DNA labeling using a DECAprime II kit (Ambion). Following stringent washes, membranes were exposed to a PhosphorImager® screen overnight and relative RNA levels were assessed using PhosphorImager® software (Molecular Dynamics (Sunnyvale, Calif.)). Total RNA was isolated from transfected Tet-off 293 cells, and probed with a radiolabeled cDNA fragment of beta-globin and GFP.

Western blotting. 1.5×10⁷ cells from each of the CEU cell lines were solubilized using 0.6 ml of 1% SDS lysis buffer (150 mM NaCl, 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5) containing Complete Mini Protease Inhibitor (Roche). Cells were sheared through a 26G needle and incubated on ice for 30 minutes. The lysate was immediately centrifuged for 10 minutes at 14000 rpm and 4° C., and the supernatant was used for subsequent SDS-PAGE and Western blot analyses. Lysates were resolved on 12% SDS-poly-Acrylamide gels (Invitrogen) and transferred under semi-dry conditions onto polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membrane using Semi-Dry Electroblot Buffer Kit (Owl). Membranes were blocked using Tris Buffered Saline (TBS) containing 0.1% Tween 20 (TBS-T) and 5% non-fat dry milk for 1 hour at room temperature, or overnight at 4° C. All washing stages were carried out using TBS-T. Blots were incubated for 1 hour at room temperature with a 1:2000 dilution of mouse monoclonal anti-IRF5 antibody (M03; Abnova Corp., Taipei City, Taiwan), or a 1:1000 dilution of Goat polyclonal anti-IRF5 antibody (ab2932; Abcam Inc., Cambridge, Mass.). Signals were detected using horseradish peroxidase (HRP) conjugated secondary Abs (1:2000 dilution of rabbit antimouse/goat IgG; Zymed Laboratories, Inc., South San Francisco, Calif.), and ECL chemiluminescence system (Amersham). Membranes also were reprobed with a 1:5000 dilution of rabbit polyclonal anti-GAPDH antibody (sc-154; Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, Calif.) and a 1:10000 dilution of goat anti-rabbit IgG HRP conjugate (Zymed).

Transient Transfection and mRNA Decay Assay. Tet-Off 293 cells (1.6×10⁶ cells/mL) were transfected with 3.0 μg of Tet-responsive reporter constructs that encoded chimeric rabbit betaglobin transcripts linked to the 3′ UTR of IRF5 that contained either the A or G allele of rs10954213 and with 1 μg of the pTracer-EF/V5-His/lacZ construct (Invitrogen Life Technologies), which produces GFP, to control for transfection efficiency. Transfections were performed with 2.5 U of TransIT-293 reagent (Mirus, Madison, Wis.) per μg of plasmid DNA. After 48 hours, 300 ng/ml of doxycycline was added to stop transcription from the Tet-off constructs. Total RNA was isolated at 0, 1, 3 and 6 hours following doxycycline treatment using the TRIzol® reagent (Invitrogen Life Technologies). RNA was further purified and DNase treated using the RNeasy Mini kit (Qiagen) according to the manufacturer's instructions, and Northern blots were performed. The hybridization intensity of each chimeric beta-globin:IRF5 transcript was normalized to the hybridization intensity of the GFP transcript, and the normalized values were used to calculate transcript half-lives.

Clinical Samples. A collection of family samples of European descent consisting of 555 pedigrees was recruited at the University of Minnesota and at Imperial College, UK (Gaffney et al. (1998) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:14875-14879; Gaffney et al. (2000) Am. J. Hum. Genet. 66:547-556; Graham et al. (2006) Hum. Mol. Genet. 15:3195-3205; and Graham et al. (2001) Arthritis Res. 3:299-305). The following independent European descent case/control populations were studied: 173 unrelated SLE cases from the University of Minnesota, 55 unrelated SLE cases from Imperial College in London, UK, 540 cases from the UCSF Lupus Genetics Project collection (Parsa et al. (2002) Genes Immunol. 3 Suppl. 1:S42-S46), and 1439 controls from the NYCP project (Mitchell et al. (2004) J. Urban Health 81:301-310). The study also included 338 SLE patients from Sweden, 213 of them recruited at the Karolinska Hospital in Stockholm (Svenungsson et al. (2003) Arthritis Rheum. 48:2533-2540) and 125 at Uppsala University Hospital (Sigurdsson et al. (2005) Am. J. Hum. Genet. 76:528-537), with 363 healthy, age- and sex matched controls from the same geographical regions as the SLE patients. The SLE patients fulfilled the American College of Rheumatology revised criteria for SLE (Tan et al. (1982) Arthritis Rheum. 25:1271-1277). In addition, 270 samples from the International Haplotype Map Consortium ((2005) Nature 437:1299-1320), 233 CEPH individuals (14 extended pedigrees, including 21 trios that are part of the HapMap CEU samples, and 38 unrelated individuals) described in Morley et al. ((2004) Nature 430:743-747) were genotyped for IRF5 region markers.

Resequencing and genotyping. IRF5 was resequenced in 8 controls and 40 SLE cases collected at Uppsala, Sweden using 23 PCR fragments that covered 1 kb upstream of exon 1a, and all exons and introns. In addition, all exons of IRF5 and 1 kb upstream of exon 1A were resequenced in 96 SLE cases of European descent from the Minnesota SLE cohort. Bidirectional sequencing was conducted using an ABI 3700 and standard methodology. Polymorphisms were identified using Sequencer (Gene Codes Corp) or SNPcompare (de Bakker et al. (2005) Nat. Genet. 37:1217-1223), an algorithm that assigns a confidence score to putative SNPs. All putative SNPs were manually verified by examining the traces. All exonic SNPs and SNPs seen in 2 or more samples were validated in the HapMap CEU population.

In the Swedish samples the SNPs were genotyped at the SNP technology platform in Uppsala (available on the World Wide Web at genotyping.se) by multiplex, fluorescent single-base extension using the SNPstream system (Beckman Coulter), with the exception of SNP rs4728142, which was typed by homogeneous fluorescent single-base extension with detection by florescence polarization (Analyst AD, Molecular Probes). The exon 6 deletion was amplified as a 145 bp or 115 bp PCR fragment with primers located in exon 6, and the amplified fragments were separated on 2% agarose gels. The genotype call rate was on average 97.2%, and the accuracy estimated from 5156 genotype comparisons between repeated assays (61% of the genotypes) was 99.3%. The genotypes conferred to Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (Fisher's exact test, P>0.01). Fragment analysis and the sequencing runs for the Swedish samples were performed by the core facility of the Rudbeck Laboratory in Uppsala, Sweden.

Genotype data in the MN and UK samples were generated using iPLEX and hME chemistries on the Sequenom platform (see Table 10 for assay information). The following quality standards were applied: no more than 1 Mendel error per 100 trios, HWE P>0.001, genotyping completeness>95%, and samples with <75% genotyping were excluded from the analysis. The exon 6 deletion was genotyped by amplifying the region using primers listed in Table 10 at an annealing temperature of 63° C. Fragments were separated using a 4% agarose gel (E-Gel 48, Invitrogen). All allele calls were made independently by two individuals blinded to sample ID.

Expression analysis in EBV cell lines. Normalized IRF5 mRNA expression levels were obtained from data made available by the GENEVAR project at the Sanger Centre from EBV transformed B-cells derived from the 270 HapMap samples (IRF5 exon 9 probe GI_(—)38683858-A). In addition, IRF5 expression values (probeset 205469_s_at) were obtained from a dataset of 233 CEPH EBV transformed B cell lines (Cheung et al. (2005) Nature 437:1365-1369; GEO accession number GSE1485). Association of genotype to IRF5 expression levels and conditional logistic regression analyses were conducted using WHAP (available online at pngu.mgh.harvard.edu/purcell//whap).

Association analysis. Family-based and case/control association analyses, including permutation testing, were conducted using Haploview v3.3 (Barrett et al. (2005) Bioinformatics 21:263-265). Single marker association results for the population-based cohorts are shown in Table 11. Conditional logistic regression analyses of single markers and haplotypes was performed using the WHAP software program. Haplotypic association results in the family-based US and UK cohort, the case-control cohort collected in the US and UK and the Swedish case-control cohort were combined using the Mantel-Haenszel meta-analysis of the odds ratios (ORs) (Lohmueller et al. (2003) Nat. Benet. 33:177-182; and Woolson and Bean (1982) Stat. Med. 1:37-39).

Expression Analysis in Whole Blood. Total RNA was isolated from whole blood drawn into PAXgene tubes from 38 independent Caucasian SLE cases (Affymetrix 133A chips, IRF5 probe set 205469_s_at). The analysis included 23 patients that were AA at the rs10954213 SNP (17 TT and 6 GT at rs2004640), 11 patients that were GA at rs10954213 (8 GT and 3 GG at rs2004640), and 4 patients that were GG at rs10954213 (1 GT and 3 GG at rs2004640).

Characterization of Sequence Variation at IRF5

To more fully characterize genetic variation at IRF5, the exons and 1 kb upstream of the IRF5 exon 1A were sequenced in DNA from 136 cases of SLE. Each of the introns in 40 SLE cases and 8 controls also were sequenced (Tables 12 and 13). In total, 52 variants were observed, of which 32 were novel, while 20 had been previously identified (present in dbSNP). Of the novel variants, 13 had minor allele frequency greater than 1%. Each such variant was genotyped in the HapMap CEU samples, allowing them to be integrated with data from the International HapMap Project.

While no common single nucleotide missense variants of IRF5 were observed, a 30 bp inframe insertion/deletion (indel) in exon 6 was observed. The exon 6 indel is located in a proline-, glutamic acid-, serine- and threonine-rich (PEST) domain, a motif previously shown to influence protein stability and function in the IRF family of proteins (Levi et al. (2002) J. Interferon Cytokine Res. 22:153-160). TagSNPs were selected to serve as proxies (r²>0.8) for all SNPs with minor allele frequency>1% in the combined data from HapMap Phase II ((2005) Nature 437:1299-1320) and genotype data in the same samples for the SNPs discovered in the sequencing effort.

Association of Common Variation in IRF5 to Risk of SLE

Each tagSNP was individually tested for association to SLE in a combined trio and family collection of 555 families from the US and the UK (Table 14). The strongest association with SLE was for three highly correlated SNPs (rs2070197, rs10488631, and rs12539741, pairwise r²>0.95). These SNPs (referred to herein as “Group 1”) do not include the exon 1B splice site variant (rs2004640) described above, and showed highly significant association: Transmitted/Untransmitted (T/U) ratio=1.8; P=1.2×10⁻⁷. To assess whether the Group 1 variants could explain the association to SLE, conditional logistic regression incorporating one of the Group 1 SNPs (rs2070197) was performed. This model was rejected, because a second set of correlated SNPs (rs729302, rs4728142, rs2004640, and rs6966125; referred to herein as Group 2) were independently associated with risk to SLE (P<0.002-0.008, Table 11). Group 2 includes rs2004640.

To test the hypothesis that the combination of Group 1 and Group 2 variants fully account for the association observed to SLE, the conditional logistic regression analysis was repeated, including a Group 1 and a Group 2 variant in the model (represented by rs2070197 and rs2004640, respectively). A third set of six highly correlated SNPs (rs4728142, rs3807135, rs752637, rs10954213, rs2280714, and rs17166351; referred to as Group 3) was associated with risk of SLE (p<0.001-0.01; Table 11). These results indicate that three independent sets of correlated IRF5 variants (Groups 1, 2, and 3) each provide statistically independent evidence for association with risk of SLE. Thus, while the exon 1B splice site (rs2004640) has been shown to be strongly associated with SLE, it is clear that rs2004640 does not explain all of the effect of IRF5 on risk to SLE—indeed, it is not even the strongest contributor. As such, experiments were conducted to identify other putative functional alleles that might explain the independent signals of association observed for Groups 1 and 3.

Cis-Acting Alleles Underlying Variation in IRF5 Expression

One approach to finding causal alleles is to examine other phenotypes that might be less complex in their inheritance, providing power to distinguish the effects of highly correlated alleles, and offer in vitro assays to assess function. In vitro expression levels provide one such phenotype. Given the previous observation that one of the Group 3 variants (rs2280714) is associated with levels of IRF5 mRNA expression, the more complete set of IRF5 variants was systematically examined for alleles that might be associated to levels of IRF5 mRNA expression in lymphoblastoid cell lines.

The same set of tagSNPs genotyped in the SLE family cohort was studied in the HapMap samples, allowing correlation of genotype to mRNA expression data collected at the Sanger Institute (on the World Wide Web at sanger.ac.uk/humgen/genevar/). A variant in the 3′ UTR (rs10954213, Group 3) showed the strongest association with IRF5 expression: P=3.5×10⁻⁵⁵ (Table 14). This variant and one other (rs10954214) reside in conserved elements within the 3′ UTR, a region that often contains sequences that influence mRNA expression (Conne et al. (2000) Nat. Med. 6:637-641).

To increase the power to distinguish effects of correlated SNPs, a subset of the associated IRF5 variants was genotyped in an independent dataset in 233 CEPH samples for which microarray gene expression data was publicly available (Morley et al., supra) (Table 15). Again, rs10954213 was the best predictor of IRF5 expression. Specifically, rs10954213 showed stronger association than either the neighboring rs10954214 or the rs2280714 SNP studied previously (Table 15, FIG. 7). Formally, rs10954213 remained strongly associated with IRF5 mRNA levels after conditioning on rs2280714 (P=5×10⁻⁹), while conditioning on rs10954213 nearly eliminated association of rs2280714 to IRF5 expression (P=0.004). Finally, similar findings were observed for expression of IRF5 in whole blood of SLE cases (FIG. 7).

These results indicated that rs10954213 was the best predictor of IRF5 expression in this survey of lymphoblastoid cell lines, clearly distinguishable in its effect from the other SNPs with which it is in strong linkage disequilibrium. As rs10954213 also is a member of Group 3, it became a candidate to explain the association of Group 3 SNPs to SLE. It is noted that the greater strength of the signal of association of IRF5 expression levels (P<10⁻⁵⁵) allowed the signal of rs10954213 to be distinguished from the other members of Group 3 for IRF5 expression. The weaker signals of association to risk of SLE were not able to be clearly distinguished.

While rs10954213 was the strongest determinant of IRF5 expression in the survey of common variation at IRF5, conditioning on this SNP did not account for all variance in IRF5 expression. After conditioning on rs10954213, the exon 1B splice site (rs2004640) and other linked SNPs were the next strongest association to IRF5 levels (Table 15). Specifically, the presence of the T allele at rs2004640, which allows expression of exon 1B isoforms, was associated with significantly higher levels of IRF5 expression in cell lines carrying GG or AG genotype at rs10954213 (FIG. 6). After incorporating a two-locus model of both rs10954213 and rs2004640, no other SNP has a nominally significant association to IRF5 expression in the CEU cell lines (Tables 15 and 16).

Thus, the systematic search for a common variation that influences levels of IRF5 mRNA led to identification of rs10954213, a SNP in a conserved element within the 3′ UTR and a member of Group 3, as well as the exon 1B splice site variant (rs2004640), a member of Group 2.

A Group 3 Variant Alters a Polyadenylation Signal and Influences IRF5 Expression

While the data described in Example 1 show that the exon 1B SNP influences IRF5 mRNA levels through its effect on splicing (Graham (2006) Nat. Genet. (38:550-555), the function, if any, of rs10954213 was unknown. The sequence surrounding rs10954213 has been highly conserved throughout evolution. Moreover, the rs10954213 G allele is predicted to disrupt a polyA⁺ signal sequence (AAUAAA→AAUGAA) located 552 bp downstream of the stop codon of IRF5 in the 3′ UTR region of exon 9. The canonical motif is a binding site for a protein complex known as cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor (CPSF). During RNA polymerase II transcription, CPSF binds to the AAUAAA sequence and is part of a complex that cuts the mRNA strand 10-30 bp downstream of the polyA⁻ signal and initiates polyadenylation of the transcripts (Edmonds (2002) Prog. Nucl. Acid. Res. Mol. Biol. 71:285-389).

Based on the location of rs10954213 in a conserved CPSF site, it was hypothesized that the different alleles of rs10954213 might influence polyadenylation, and thereby the length and stability of the IRF5 message. Specifically, the A allele of rs10954213 might allow efficient polyadenylation approximately 12 bp downstream, while the G allele favors the use of a distal polyA⁺ site 648 bp downstream (FIG. 8).

To directly test this hypothesis, Northern blotting and quantitative PCR were performed using IRF5 mRNA from cell lines and PBMC of known genotype at rs10954213, as well as chimeric mRNAs that attach the two alleles of the 3′ UTR to heterologous expression constructs. Total and polyA⁺ enriched RNA were isolated from the HapMap CEU population, selecting individuals based on genotype at rs10954213. Northern blotting of polyA⁺ RNA showed that cell lines homozygous for the A allele at rs10954213, carrying the wild-type AAUAAA on both alleles, expressed mainly a short version of IRF5 mRNAs. In contrast, cell lines homozygous for the G allele (AAUGAA) expressed almost exclusively a longer mRNA that utilized the second downstream polyA⁺ site. AG heterozygote cell lines showed expression of both isoforms. Identical results were obtained in Northern blots of total RNA isolated from the cell lines. These results were confirmed with TaqMan quantitative PCR assays in both EBV-transformed cell lines and normal donor PBMCs (FIG. 9). These data confirmed that the allele at rs10954213 determines the site of polyadenylation. Thus, rs10954213 is referred to hereafter as the polyA⁺ variant, with the A allele termed the “short” allele, and the G allele the “long” allele.

To determine whether the long allele of the 3′ UTR might be unstable, the two versions of the 3′ UTR downstream from the coding region of rabbit beta-globin were cloned, and 293 ‘Tet-off’ kidney cells were transfected with expression plasmids driving chimeric cDNAs carrying either the short or long allele. Northern blotting of mRNA isolated 48 hours after transfection showed that chimeric cDNAs used the expected polyA⁺ site, and that the long mRNAs had a shorter half-life than short chimeric transcripts (FIG. 10). Estimates for the half-life of these transcripts, based on regression curves, were 342±88 min for the short allele, and 125±21 min for the long allele. By comparison, the calculated half-life of beta-globin mRNA alone (lacking the IRF5 3′ UTR) was 11,631±1,574 min. These experiments document that disruption of the proximal polyA⁺ signal by rs10954213 leads to transcription of long and relatively unstable IRF5 mRNA transcripts. These effects on IRF5 mRNA are reflected in levels of IRF5 protein, as shown by Western blots of whole cell lysates from EBV cell lines carrying the various polyA⁺ SNP genotypes: cells carrying the AA genotype showed ˜5-fold higher levels of immunoreactive IRF5 protein than cells carrying the GG genotype.

The Exon 6 Indel and Risk of SLE

The experimental results discussed herein suggest that (a) the association of Group 2 SNPs to SLE is likely explained by the exon 1B splice site allele (rs2004640), and (b) the association of the Group 3 SNPs is likely due to the polyA⁺ variant (rs10954213). In contrast, none of the Group 1 SNPs were found to alter the coding region of IRF5, lie in evolutionarily conserved regions, or change an annotated sequence motif. This suggests either that the Group 1 SNPs (or an undiscovered but strongly linked mutation) have an as yet unrecognized effect on IRF5 function, or that the Group 1 SNPs have no functional consequence but instead tag a combination of other functional variants in IRF5.

To assess the second model (having found no evidence for a functional allele among the Group 1 SNPs), the conditional logistic regression analysis was performed not in order of statistical significance (as above), but instead starting with the two putative functional alleles identified above (exon 1B splice site variant and polyA⁺ variant). Multiple variants were observed that showed significant association to SLE in this analysis (Table 11), including the 30 bp in-frame insertion/deletion (indel) polymorphism that was discovered within exon 6 (FIG. 11). This indel is located in a PEST domain known to influence stability and function of the IRF family of proteins. Previous studies have shown that IRF5 protein isoforms which, in part, differ by the 30 bp (10aa) exon 6 indel (which had previously been observed in cDNA, but not recognized to be a germline polymorphism) have differential ability to initiate transcription of IRF5 target genes (Barnes et al. (2004) J. Biol. Chem. 279:45194-45207; Mancl et al. (2005) J. Biol. Chem. 280:21078-21090; and Barnes et al. (2002) Mol. Cell. Biol. 22:5721-5740).

It is noted that association of the exon 6 indel to SLE was only observed when conditioned on the exon 1B splice site and polyA⁺ variants. The association previously had been masked by the signal of the Group 1 variants in the initial analysis that proceeded in order of statistical significance. Consistent with a model in which the three putative functional alleles (exon 1B, polyA⁺, and exon 6 indel) are sufficient to explain the observed association to SLE, however, a logistic regression that includes these three variants revealed no additional SNP with p<0.01. That is, the effect of Group 1 SNPs is statistically indistinguishable from their linkage disequilibrium with the three alleles that have putative functional effects on the structure of IRF5 protein and/or its expression.

Haplotype Analysis Identifies Three Levels of SLE Risk

To better understand the observed combinations of the three putative functional alleles (and the Group 1 SNPs), the four marker haplotypes defined by: (a) the exon 1B splice site (rs2004640, Group 2), (b) the polyA⁺ variant (rs10954213, Group 3), (c) the exon 6 indel, and (d) Group 1 (using rs2070197 as a proxy) were examined (Table 17). These four variants defined five common haplotypes, each carrying unique combinations of the exon 1B splice site, the exon 6 indel, and the polyA⁺ variant.

These haplotypes were studied for association to SLE in large family-based and case-control samples totaling 2,188 case and 3,596 control chromosomes. Haplotype 1 (Table 17) was strongly associated with risk of SLE, appearing on 19.0% of SLE chromosomes in comparison to 11.9% of control chromosomes (P=1.4×10⁻¹⁹, Table 17). In the case-control sample, a single copy of haplotype 1 was associated with an odds ratio (OR) of 1.46, while two copies were associated with an OR of 2.96 (Table 18). No other IRF5 haplotypes showed positive association with SLE. The high-risk haplotype 1 is predicted to be the only haplotype with the ability to express exon 1B isoforms (due to rs2004640), carries the exon 6 insertion, and is expressed at high levels due to the polyA⁺ variant.

Alternative proximal splice acceptors for exon six, termed SS1 and SS2, which are proximate to the exon 6 indel, have been shown to influence activation of downstream genes (Barnes et al. (2004), supra; Mancl et al., supra; and Barnes et al. (2002), supra). As shown in FIG. 12, both SS1 and SS2 are used regardless of the exon 6 indel genotype.

While haplotypes 2 and 3 showed no evidence for association to SLE as compared to the overall population (OR=1.09 and 0.95, P>=0.05, respectively), haplotypes 4 and 5 showed strong evidence for protection. Specifically, each was associated with a ˜25% reduction in risk (OR=0.76) that was statistically highly significant (P<5×10⁻⁸ and 3×10⁻⁵, respectively). Moreover, individuals that carry haplotype 1 in trans with either of the haplotypes that lack exon 1B isoform expression (4 and 5) show a reduction in risk of SLE (Table 18).

Frequency of IRF5 Haplotypes in World Populations

The Human Genome Diversity Panel was genotyped to assess the frequency of IRF5 alleles in world populations, and genotype data was submitted to the Human Genome Diversity panel (HGDP) database (Rosenberg et al. (2002) Science 298:2381-2385; and Cann et al. (2002) Science 296:261-262). It was noted that high-risk haplotype 1 is common in a European-derived population, but rare in West-African and East-Asian HapMap populations (15% in CEU, 0% in YRI, <1% in JPT/HCB). Extending these observations into a broader array of populations in the HGDP revealed that haplotype 1 is found in Central Asia and derived populations (European and Native American), but is rare in other world populations (Table 19). Haplotype 1 was examined for evidence of recent rapid positive selection using extended haplotype homozygosity algorithms (Sabeti et al. (2002) Nature 419:832-837; and Walsh et al. (2006) Hum. Genet. 119:92-102), but there was no evidence for selection.

In summary, these data reveal that the highest risk for SLE is observed with a haplotype that is predicted to express at high levels of transcripts containing exon 1B and the exon 6 insertion (FIG. 13). Haplotypes 2 and 3, which carry only 2 of the 3 risk associated functional alleles, show average risk to SLE. Haplotypes 4 and 5, which carry only 1 of the 3 risk associated functional alleles—and, in particular, lack exon 1B isoforms—are protective for SLE.

TABLE 10 Assay Information Forward Primer Reverse Primer Extension Primer/Probe Assay Name (SEQ ID NO:) (SEQ ID NO:) (SEQ ID NO:) Platform Samples Genotyping assays used in US and UK cohorts rs2070197 AGCGGATAACAGACAGC AGCGGATAACTCCTACC TCTCCTTCTTGGCCCA (30) Sequenom HapMap, CCAGGAGAGAAAG (28) TCTGGGTTTCCTG (29) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs10488631 AGCGGATAACATTCACTG AGCGGATAACGTCTATC AGCTCGGAAATGGTTC (33) Sequenom HapMap, CCTTGTAGCTCG (31) AGGTACCAAAGGC (32) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs2004640 AGCGGATAACTCCAGCT AGCGGATAACAGGCGC GGAAAGCGAGCTCGGG (36) Sequenom HapMap, GCGCCTGGAAAG (34) TTTGGAAGTCCCAG (35) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs960633 AGCGGATAACTTCCTGCT AGCGGATAACTCACAGA CTCAACATTCCTTGCTG (39) Sequenom HapMap, ACTGTTAGTCCC (37) TCTGCAGACATGG (38) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs2280714 AGCGGATAACTGGACTG AGCGGATAACGCTTTCT taTGACCCTGGCAGGTCC (42) Sequenom HapMap, AGAGAATGAACGG (40) ATCGTGGTCACAT (41) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs11761242 AGCGGATAACACCTCATT AGCGGATAACTTAAAGC AAAGTCTGGCGTTTTAAC (45) Sequenom HapMap, CTGAAGTCTGCC (43) AGTAGCTCCCTTG (44) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs4728142 AGCGGATAACCCTTCCTC AGCGGATAACAGGTGTC CCCCATTTCTTACTAACAC Sequenom HapMap, CCCATTTCTTAC (46) CATGTAACAGTGC (47) (48) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs6948542 AGCGGATAACCTCATCTC AGCGGATAACCCTCGTC CCTGCTATTCCATCTCCTTC Sequenom HapMap, TACTGGAGATGG (49) TGCAGGTCCTTAT (50) (51) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs6966125 AGCGGATAACCCAGCCA AGCGGATAACTTGAATC ATTCTTAATATGCTTGCCTT Sequenom HapMap, GGAAGCAATTCTT (52) CTTGGCTGTAGGC (53) (54) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs4731523 AGCGGATAACATCTTTAC AGCGGATAACGTCACAG ATTACAGTAAGAAAAAGCCC Sequenom HapMap, TGCCCTAGGGTG (55) GCTTCAGCTAGG (56) (57) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs729302 AGCGGATAACTGGACTCT AGCGGATAACGAAATAG aTGGTGTGTAGGTGATCCTG Sequenom HapMap, GGTGTGTAGGTG (58) ACCAGAGACCAGG (59) (60) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs6968225 AGCGGATAACTCCTCACA AGCGGATAACAGCAGCA ggCCACCCCACTGTTTAGAGG Sequenom HapMap, GCACCATAAGTC (61) GCTGCCATTCCAT (62) (63) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs12539741 AGCGGATAACAATTCATA AGCGGATAACACCCTCC ccACCTCCTGCCCTGGTCAAAA Sequenom HapMap, CCTCCTGCCCTG (64) AGATGTAATGAGC (65) (66) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs11770589 AGCGGATAACCCTTTTAC AGCGGATAACCCAGTTG cACTACCAGTTGCTCCCATGCT Sequenom HapMap, TACTACCAGTTGC (67) GCATCCGAAACAG (68) (69) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs10954213 AGCGGATAACGAAAGAAA AGCGGATAACCTTGAGA gGCTGAGTCTGTTTTTAACATT Sequenom HapMap, CAGCTGAGTCTG (70) GTCCAAGAACCTG (71) (72) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs1874328 AGCGGATAACGCTAAACC AGCGGATAACACCCTCA CAGGCTCGAGACACTGGAGCT Sequenom HapMap, TGCACATAGGAC (73) CCTCACCTAATTG (74) G (75) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs1495461 AGCGGATAACGTGGCTT AGCGGATAACAAAAGGA tCTTCCGACTTCTGGTCTTTAT Sequenom HapMap, CCGACTTCTGGT (76) ACATTGAGGGCGG (77) G (78) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs17166351 AGCGGATAACCCGGCCT AGCGGATAACGTAGGCT gGAGGAAACTTATGAGAGCCG Sequenom HapMap, TTGTAAACAAAATC (79) GCTACAACAACAC (80) TA (81) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs10954214 AGCGGATAACGGCCTTC AGCGGATAACATTCCAC AAACACTCACCTGGCTGGCTT Sequenom HapMap, ATAAACACTCACC (82) ACCCTTGCTTCAG (83) TGC (84) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs7780972 AGCGGATAACTAGGGTC AGCGGATAACGAAGAGT tgAGAAGTGTACACCCTTATTC Sequenom HapMap, CGGATTAGAAGTG (85) AATTTGCCCCCTG (86) TA (87) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs3847098 AGCGGATAACGGTGAAT AGCGGATAACTGGTTTC cccTCTGTTTAGTCTTCCTTTTT Sequenom HapMap, GTTTCAGTTCTGG (88) CTGGTGAACTTTC (89) TT (90) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs7808907 AGCGGATAACTCCATATA AGCGGATAACCTGTGCT gatCAAAAACTATTATGCGAGG Sequenom HapMap, CACACATGTGC (91) CTCTCCAATAATC (92) TAC (93) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs3807135 AGCGGATAACACTGTGTT AGCGGATAACACACAAA CACCCTCGCCAGGGGTG (96) Sequenom HapMap, CTAGGGCGAGAG (94) TGAGGGCGCAGTG (95) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs9656375 AGCGGATAACCTGATGTC AGCGGATAACAGCATTT TCAGGGTGGTAGGGACA (99) Sequenom HapMap, TAATAGGCCCTG (97) CACGGCAGGAAAG (98) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs10488630 AGCGGATAACGGGAGTT AGCGGATAACCAGGTCA TCAGTTAAACAGTGTGGTA Sequenom HapMap, GGGTTACTCTTTC (100) GGAAACTGTCTAC (101) (102) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs752637 AGCGGATAACTTTTCCCC AGCGGATAACGCAAAAG ACCCTGACCCTGGGAGGAAG Sequenom HapMap, TGTACCCTGGTC (103) GTGCCCAGAAAGA (104) C (105) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts rs2935017 ACGTTGGATGAGCAGGG ACGTTGGATGATGTCAA CCAGCACCACGGGCGGC Sequenom HapMap, GGACCCAGCACCA (106) GTGGCCGCCCA (107) (108) iPlex HGDP, MN and UK SLE cohorts IRF5_exon6_(—) CTCAAAGAGGATGTCAAG GGCTGGGGTCTGGAGC NA 4% HapMap, MN indel TGG (109) AG (110) Agarose and UK SLE Gel cohorts Genotyping assays used in Swedish cohort rs10954213 TACCCCCTTCTTGAGAGT ATGGGAGCAACTGGTAG AGCGATCTGCGAGACCGTATA SNPstream Swedish SLE CC (111) TAGTAAA (112) ATTTTTATGTATTTTTGGATTAA case_(—) T (113) controls rs2004640 GAGGCGCTTTGGAAGTC ATGAAGACTGGAGTAGG GGATGGCGTTCCGTCCTATTG SNPstream Swedish SLE C (114) GCG (115) CGCACCCTGCTGTAGGCACCC case_(—) (116) controls rs2070197 AGCGGATAACAGACAGC AGCGGATAACTCCTACC CCCTCTCCTTCTTGGCCCA FP_TDI Swedish SLE CCAGGAGAGAAAG (117) TCTGGGTTTCCTG (118) (119) case_(—) controls Ex6_indel30 CCCCACATGACACCCTAT GGCTGGGGTCTGGAGC 2% Swedish SLE TC (120) AG (121) agaorose case_(—) gel controls IRF5 sequencing primers used in US SLE cases IRF5_e01_a0 AGGTACGGGGTTGTCAA TACTCCAGTCTTCATCC Sequencing 01_0-100 ATG (122) CGC (123) IRF5_e02_a0 CTGCAGTTGCCAGGTCA GAAAGTAAGGATCGGG Sequencing 01_0-100 GT (124) CCTC (125) IRF5_e03_a0 CTCCTTCCCTTCCTCCAA aggcaggagaattgcttgaa Sequencing 01_0-100 AC (126) (127) IRF5_e04_a0 ACACTGTTTCACCCTCCC GCCATTCCTGATATGCC Sequencing 01_0-100 AG (128) AGT (129) IRF5_e05_a0 CTGGCATATCAGGAATGG AGACCTACCAAGCCCCA Sequencing 01_0-100 CT (130) ACT (131) IRF5_e06_a0 TTCTCCTGGGATTCTGAA GAATAGGGTGTCATGTG Sequencing 01_0-100 CG (132) GGG (133) IRF5_e07_a0 TTGCCTCATAGTTCTCGC GTCCTTACGAGGCAGCA Sequencing 01_0-100 CT (134) TGT (135) IRF5_e08_a0 TGGTGGTTGGGGGTCTA ATCTCCAGGTCGGTCAC Sequencing 01_0_100 GTA (136) TGT (137) IRF5_e10_a0 GTAGGATTGGCAAGGAG TTCCCCAAAGCAGAAGA Sequencing 01_0-100 GGT (138) AGA (139) IRF5_e11_a0 AGGACATCCCCAGTGAC GGGGTGAGTAATAGACC Sequencing 01_0-100 AAG (140) GCA (141) IRF5_e12_a0 CTGAGCAGTGTGAACTTG GGGAGAGTTCTTTCCCT Sequencing 01_0-26 GC (142) GCT (143) IRF5_e12_a0 TGGAGATGTTCTCAGGG CAGAGGACAGGGAGAT Sequencing 02_10-38 GAG (144) GAGG (145) IRF5_e12_a0 TTTCCTGGAAGTGGATTT TTATGAAGGCCCAACTG Sequencing 03_32-59 GG (146) ACC (147) IRF5_e12_a0 AGAGTGTTGTGGGCCAA ACTCACTCACTGTCCCC Sequencing 04_48-77 GTC (148) ACC (149) IRF5_e12_a0 ACTACCAGTTGCTCCCAT TTGCGTTGCTGTAAACG Sequencing 05_65-94 GC (150) AAG (151) IRF5_e12_a0 CTGAAGCAAGGGTGTGG CAGGCCACTTAACCATG Sequencing 06_78-100 AAT (152) TGA (153) IRF5_2kb_Up GCTCCAGATACGACCAG GAACTTTGACCTTCCCT Sequencing streamRegion CAT (154) CCC (155) _a001_0-18 IRF5_2kb_Up CATTCACATTTTCCCCAT GTCAACAGGCAGCAGG Sequencing streamRegion CC (156) TGTA (157) _a002_18-40 IRF5_2kb_Up TGGTGAAACCCCGTCTCT ATGGAATGTTCTTCGCT Sequencing streamRegion AC (158) TGG (159) _a003_37-59 IRF5_2kb_Up CATCAAAATTGAAACCCG TTCTCATCCTCAAACCC Sequencing streamRegion CT (160) TGC (161) _a004_48-69 IRF5_2kb_Up ccctggcaatccataacaAA TAGACTGGCCACTGGCT Sequencing streamRegion (162) CTT (163) _a005_63-84 IRF5_2kb_Up ATGGAATCGAAAACGGTT CAAGCTGAGCTCTGCCC Sequencing streamRegion CA (164) A (165) _a006_74-96 IRF5_2kb_Up CACATCTGGAAGGGGTG CTAGACTTGGGGGCAGT Sequencing streamRegion TCT (166) AGC (167) _a007_83-100 Exon1c_a001 CTGAGTTGTCCCGGTCTA GGAAACAGAAGCCACA Sequencing _0-100 GC (168) GCTC (169) IRF5_e01_a0 AAGAGCCAGTGGCCAGT CTCCTCTGTGGTCCAAG Sequencing 02_0-100 CTA (170) CC (171) IRF5_e03_a0 CTCCTTCCCTTCCTCCAA AGGCAGGAGAATTGCTT Sequencing 02_0-100 AC (172) GAA (173) IRF5_e11_a0 AGGACATCCCCAGTGAC GGGGTGAGTAATAGACC Sequencing 02_0-100 AAG (174) GCA (175) IRF5_e12_a0 AACCCCGAGAGAAGAAG AATCCACTTCCAGGAAA Sequencing 07_0-17 CTC (176) CCC (177) IRF5_2kb_Up CTCCCCTCTCAACAGCTC TGTCATTTGACAACCCC Sequencing streamRegion AC (178) GTA (179) _a008_57-82 IRF5_2kb_Up GTGACTAGAGGATTCCC TACTCCAGTCTTCATCC Sequencing streamRegion GCC (180) CGC (181) _a009_82-100 IRF5 primers used in Swedish samples Sequencing Sequencing PCR Primer Forward PCR Primer Reverse Primer Forward Primer Reverse Assay Name (SEQ ID NO:) (SEQ ID NO:) (SEQ ID NO:) (SEQ ID NO:) Platform UUmolmed_IR TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGAC TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGACC F5_seq01 CCGCTGAATTTTCCAAAA CCTACCTTGACCGTCGA (184) (185) AG (182) CCTG (183) UUmolmed_IR TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGAC TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGACC F5_seq02 GCAAGAGTTACCAAGCG CCTCCAGGGAGATGCC (188) (189) AAGA (186) AGAC (187) UUmolmed_IR TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGAC TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGACC F5_seq03 TGACAGTTTTGCCATTCC CGAGGGAGAGCAGCAG (192) (193) AG (190) AGC (191) UUmolmed_IR TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGAC TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGACC F5_seq04 CTTTTGGTGTCAGGCAGT CTTATGTGCGCTCCTCT (196) (197) CA (194) TCTG (195) UUmolmed_IR TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGAC TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGACC F5_seq05 TTATTCTGCATCCCCTGG CTCGTTGGCTTCCTTTA (200) (201) AG (198) GCAT (199) UUmolmed_IR TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGAC TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGACC F5_seq06 TTGTAAAGACAGGAGTCT CTCGTAGATGAGGCGG (204) (205) CGTTATG (202) AAGTC (203) UUmolmed_IR TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGAC TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGACC F5_seq07 GCCAAGGAGACAGGGAA CCTCCTCTCCTGCACCA (208) (209) ATA (206) AAAG (207) UUmolmed_IR TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGAC TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGACC F5_seq08 TCTCCTCCGACATTGACT CAGGCTTGGCAACATCC (212) (213) CC (210) TCT (211) UUmolmed_IR TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGAC TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGACC F5_seq09 CCCCAGGTCAGTGGAAT CAGGTCTGGCAGGAGC (216) (217) AAC (214) TGTT (215) UUmolmed_IR TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGAC TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGACC F5_seq10 GGCTTCAGGGAGCTTCT CCCTGTAGCTGGAGGAT (220) (221) CTC (218) GAGC (219) UUmolmed_IR TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGAC TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGACC F5_seq11 CCGACCTGGAGATCAAG CTTCCCCAAAGCAGAAG (224) (225) TTT (222) AAGA (223) UUmolmed_IR TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGAC TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGACC F5_seq12 TTGATGCAGAGCTCATCC CGATGGAGCTCCTTGAA (228) (229) TG (226) TTGC (227) UUmolmed_IR TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGAC TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGACC F5_seq13 CAGGGGAGCTATCTTGG CAAATGGGGCAATCACA (232) (233) TCA (230) AGAG (231) UUmolmed_IR TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGAC TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGACC F5_seq14 TGGGGCCTAGCTGTATA CATTCCACACCCTTGCT (236) (237) GGA (234) TCAG (235) UUmolmed_IR TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGAC TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGT CAGGAAACAGCTATGACC F5_seq15 GGTCAGTTGGGCCTTCAT CGGGCAAGGTATCCTTG (240) (241) AA (238) AACAT (239) qPCR assay information Forward Primer Reverse Primer Extension Primer/Probe Assay Name (SEQ ID NO:) (SEQ ID NO:) (SEQ ID NO:) Short form CCCTTCTTGAGAGTCCAA (242) TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTC CCTGGAGCAGAAATAATTT (244) TGTT (243) Long form CCCTTCTTGAGAGTCCAA (245) TAGTAGTAAAAGGAAAG CCTGGAGCAGAAATAATTT (247) AAACAG (246) Common CCTTCCCGGGCCTTTCT (248) TTCCCTGCTCATGGCTG TGTCTCTGGTCTGGTCAG (250) AAT (249) GAPDH Man Gene Expression Assay ID Hs 99999905_m1 (Applied Biosystems)

TABLE 11 Single marker transmission and conditional analyses in SLE trios from US and UK P conditional on P conditional on Group 1 (rs2070197), P⁵ conditional on Group 1 (rs2070197) Group 2 (rs2004640), Group 1 variants and Group 2 and Group 3 Marker Position¹ Allele² T³ U³ T/U³ X² P⁴ (rs2070197) (rs2004640) variants (rs10954213) variants rs7780972 128, 113, 113 C 88 73 1.2 1.4 0.237 0.03 0.14 0.25 rs9656375 128, 115, 191 G 213 210 1 0 0.884 0.87 0.65 0.58 rs4731523 128, 124, 227 A 241 211 1.1 2 0.158 0.36 0.32 0.4 rs6948542 128, 141, 463 G 184 166 1.1 0.9 0.336 0.29 0.27 0.37 rs1495461 128, 145, 691 G 260 220 1.2 3.3 0.068 0.37 0.59 0.45 rs960633 128, 154, 711 T 257 209 1.2 4.9 0.026 0.54 0.75 0.56 rs6968225 128, 157, 557 G 106 105 1 0 0.945 0.48 0.08 0.19 0.82 rs729302 128, 162, 910 A 270 195 1.4 12.1 5.0 × 10⁻⁴ 0.0024 0.56 0.82 rs4728142 128, 167, 917 A 363 257 1.4 18.1 2.1 × 10⁻⁵ 0.0054 0.0096 0.2 rs3807135 128, 171, 568 C 298 241 1.2 6 0.0141 0.28 0.0008 0.31 rs2004640 128, 172, 251 T 344 233 1.5 21.4 3.8 × 10⁻⁶ 0.0019 — — rs752637 128, 173, 371 G 297 238 1.2 6.5 0.011 0.28 0.001 0.14 rs1874328 128, 179, 054 T 280 275 1 0 0.832 0.47 0.04 0.94 Exon 6 indel 128, 181, 324-54 A 337 294 1.1 2.9 0.087 0.25 0.01 NA rs2070197 128, 182, 950 C 205 111 1.8 28 1.2 × 10⁻⁷ — — — rs10954213 128, 183, 377 A 282 226 1.2 6.2 0.013 0.14 0.0089 — rs11770589 128, 183, 438 G 338 288 1.2 4 0.046 0.16 0.01 NA rs10954214 128, 183, 583 T 281 232 1.2 4.7 0.031 0.14 0.02 NA rs10488630 128, 187, 899 G 280 263 1.1 0.5 0.466 0.42 0.11 0.9 rs10488631 128, 188, 133 C 223 125 1.8 27.6 1.5 × 10⁻⁷ 1 NA⁶ NA rs2280714 128, 188, 675 A 268 219 1.2 4.9 0.026 0.18 0.0078 NA rs3847098 128, 189, 099 G 211 199 1.1 0.4 0.553 0.28 0.06 0.83 rs11761242 128, 189, 556 T 25 20 1.3 0.6 0.456 0.03 0.06 0.06 rs12539741 128, 190, 755 T 222 125 1.8 27.1 1.9 × 10⁻⁷ 1 NA NA rs17166351 128, 191, 754 C 336 290 1.2 3.4 0.066 0.17 0.005 NA rs6966125 128, 192, 475 C 153 124 1.2 3 0.081 0.0078 0.825 0.29 Two marker Single marker⁷ P P P P P P P P conditional conditional conditional conditional conditional P conditional conditional conditional on on on on on conditional on on exon6 on on rs2004640, rs2004640, rs2004640, exon6_indel, exon6_indel, Marker rs2004640 indel rs2070197 rs10954213 exon6_indel rs2070197 rs10954213 rs2070197 rs10954213 rs7780972 0.06 0.02 0.03 0.11 0.20 0.14 0.21 0.10 0.12 rs9656375 0.46 0.52 0.87 0.35 0.56 0.65 0.27 0.78 0.75 rs4731523 0.17 0.72 0.36 0.24 0.34 0.32 0.23 0.38 0.43 rs6948542 0.56 0.08 0.29 0.47 0.13 0.27 0.92 0.40 0.41 rs1495461 0.88 0.17 0.37 0.22 0.80 0.59 0.63 0.21 0.08 rs960633 0.91 0.10 0.54 0.09 0.52 0.75 0.29 0.14 0.06 rs6968225 0.13 0.13 0.48 0.31 0.10 0.08 0.19 0.17 0.31 rs729302 0.97 4.5 × 10⁻⁵ 0.0024 1.1 × 10⁻⁵ 0.70 0.56 0.81 0.0046 0.0037 rs4728142 0.02 7.7 × 10⁻⁹ 0.0054 2.3 × 10⁻⁶ 0.0081 0.0096 0.24 4.4 × 10⁻⁵ 4.7 × 10⁻⁵ rs3807135 2.3 × 10⁻⁴ 6.8 × 10⁻⁶ 0.28 0.01 0.56 8.3 × 10−4 0.31 0.16 0.13 rs2004640 — 8.8 × 10⁻¹⁰ 0.0019 5.1 × 10⁻⁹ — — — 1.4 × 10⁻⁴ 2.9 × 10⁻⁵ rs752637 4.8 × 10⁻⁴ 9.5 × 10⁻⁶ 0.28 0.02 0.23 0.0010 0.11 0.20 0.19 rs1874328 1.3 × 10⁻⁴ 0.04 0.47 0.03 0.88 0.04 0.0016 0.04 0.02 Exon 6 indel 1.3 × 10⁻⁴ — 0.25 1.3 × 10⁻⁶ — 0.01 4.3 × 10⁻³ — — rs2070197 4.8 × 10⁻⁴ 8.0 × 10⁻⁸ — 1.9 × 10⁻⁶ 9.2 × 10⁻⁵ — 6.1 × 10⁻⁵ — NA rs10954213 0.0047 3.7 × 10⁻⁷ 0.14 — 1.1 × 10⁻⁴ 0.0089 — NA — rs11770589 5.5 × 10⁻⁴ NA 0.16 2.2 × 10⁻⁵ NA 0.01 3.2 × 10⁻⁴ NA NA rs10954214 0.0071 4.4 × 10⁻⁶ 0.14 0.56 NA 0.02 NA 0.74 0.73 rs10488630 1.3 × 10⁻⁴ 0.14 0.42 0.0057 0.81 0.11 1.9 × 10⁻⁴ 0.14 0.10 rs10488631 9.6 × 10⁻⁵ 1.4 × 10⁻⁷ 1.00 7.3 × 10⁻⁶ 1.5 × 10⁻⁴ NA 1.9 × 10⁻⁴ NA NA rs2280714 0.0034 9.7 × 10⁻⁶ 0.18 0.54 NA 0.0078 NA 0.53 0.52 rs3847098 0.0027 0.10 0.28 0.03 0.78 0.06 0.0032 0.10 0.07 rs11761242 0.0097 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.01 0.08 0.09 rs12539741 6.2 × 10⁻⁵ 9.9 × 10⁻⁸ 1.00 5.5 × 10⁻⁶ 9.6 × 10⁻⁵ NA 1.4 × 10⁻⁴ NA NA rs17166351 3.3 × 10⁻⁴ NA 0.17 1.1 × 10⁻⁵ NA 0.005 3.3 × 10⁻⁴ NA NA rs6966125 0.78 3.2 × 10⁻⁴ 0.0078 0.20 0.45 0.82 0.30 0.36 0.23 Four marker Three marker P P P P P P conditional Two marker conditional conditional conditional conditional conditional on P on on on on on rs2004640, conditional rs2004640, rs2004640, rs2004640, exon6_indel, rs3807135, exon6_indel, on exon6_indel, exon6_indel, rs2070197, rs2070197, rs2004640, rs2070197, rs2070197, and and and and and and r² to Marker rs10954213 rs2070197 rs10954213 rs10954213 rs10954213 rs2070197 rs10954213 rs2070197⁸ rs7780972 0.16 0.11 0.30 0.25 0.13 0.11 0.15 0.00 rs9656375 0.50 0.66 0.70 0.58 0.72 0.83 0.64 0.00 rs4731523 0.35 0.40 0.49 0.40 0.48 0.61 0.47 0.02 rs6948542 0.51 0.18 0.11 0.37 0.47 0.29 0.15 0.00 rs1495461 0.09 0.71 0.86 0.45 0.20 0.55 0.87 0.00 rs960633 0.10 0.73 0.76 0.56 0.08 0.55 0.69 0.01 rs6968225 0.18 0.14 0.16 0.19 0.26 0.06 0.19 0.02 rs729302 0.0055 0.66 0.66 0.82 0.0023 0.73 0.79 0.08 rs4728142 1.7 × 10⁻⁵ 0.17 0.16 0.20 9.3 × 10⁻⁶ 0.02 0.18 0.11 rs3807135 0.16 0.32 0.35 0.31 0.12 — 0.29 0.09 rs2004640 7.1 × 10⁻⁵ — — — 1.5 × 10⁻⁵ — — 0.14 rs752637 0.15 0.10 0.11 0.14 0.17 NA 0.09 0.09 rs1874328 0.0049 0.88 0.88 0.94 0.02 0.27 0.95 0.13 Exon 6 indel NA — — NA — 0.24 — 0.19 rs2070197 — — NA — — — — — rs10954213 — NA — — — 0.17 — 0.09 rs11770589 NA NA NA NA NA 0.06 1.00 0.20 rs10954214 0.73 NA NA NA 0.78 0.13 1.00 0.08 rs10488630 0.05 0.75 0.65 0.90 0.08 0.48 0.76 0.11 rs10488631 NA NA NA NA NA NA 1.00 1.00 rs2280714 0.68 NA NA NA 0.62 0.07 1.00 0.08 rs3847098 0.07 0.82 0.72 0.83 0.05 0.52 0.82 0.12 rs11761242 0.12 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.10 0.06 0.04 0.01 rs12539741 NA NA NA NA NA NA 1.00 0.99 rs17166351 NA NA NA NA NA 0.09 1.00 0.20 rs6966125 0.29 0.38 0.35 0.29 0.22 0.46 0.29 0.03 ¹Position in the HG17 assembly of the Human Genome ²The overtransmitted allele ³Number of transmitted alleles (T), untransmitted alleles (U), and transmitted to untransmitted allele ratio (T/U) ⁴Nominal P value for association to SLE ⁵P value for the association to SLE under the model that the indicated markers fully explain the association, as determined by conditional logistic regression ⁶NA indicates that the association to SLE cannot be calculated because it is statistically indistinguishable from the proposed model ⁷P value for the association to SLE under the model that the indicated single marker, or two-, three-, or four-marker haplotype fully explains the association to SLE, as determined by conditional logistic regression ⁸Correlation of marker to rs207019

TABLE 12 Variants discovered by resequencing all IRF5 exons and introns and 1 Kb upstream of exon 1A in 42 Swedish SLE cases Number Number of of chromosomes chromo- with Internal ID Rs number¹ Chromosome Position² MAF³ Minor Allele somes⁴ minor allele Description UUmolmed_IRF5_01 rs3757386 7 128, 171, 248 0.17 A 42 7 Promoter UUmolmed_IRF5_02 rs3757385 7 128, 171, 255 0.21 A 42 9 Promoter UUmolmed_IRF5_03 rs3834330 7 128171273-5 0.16 TG 44 7 Promoter “deletion” UUmolmed_IRF5_04 rs3807134 7 128, 171, 289 0.15 G 46 7 Promoter UUmolmed_IRF5_05 rs3807135 7 128, 171, 568 0.26 A 46 12 Promoter UUmolmed_IRF5_06 rs6968563 7 128, 171, 682 0.04 A 46 2 Promoter UUmolmed_IRF5_07 7 128, 172, 086 0.06 G 72 4 Promoter UUmolmed_IRF5_08 gcccc 7 128171882-7 0.37 GCCCC 86 32 Promoter clusters “insertion” UUmolmed_IRF5_09 rs6953165 7 128, 172, 161 0.04 G 28 1 Intron UUmolmed_IRF5_10 rs2004640 7 128, 172, 252 0.49 G 90 44 Intron UUmolmed_IRF5_11 rs11767834 7 128, 175, 227 0.02 A 46 1 Intron UUmolmed_IRF5_12 7 128, 175, 684 0.02 A 46 1 Intron UUmolmed_IRF5_13 7 128, 175, 305 0.02 C 46 1 Intron UUmolmed_IRF5_14 7 128, 175, 281 0.02 G 46 1 Intron UUmolmed_IRF5_15 rs11761199 7 128, 175, 786 0.5 G 42 21 Intron UUmolmed_IRF5_16 7 128, 175, 834 0.18 A 44 8 Intron UUmolmed_IRF5_17 rs1874327 7 128, 179, 327 0.27 A 56 15 Intron UUmolmed_IRF5_18 7 128, 179, 567 0.23 C 56 13 Intron UUmolmed_IRF5_19 7 128, 179, 704 0.03 A 30 1 Intron UUmolmed_IRF5_20 7 128, 180, 368 0.02 A 48 1 Intron UUmolmed_IRF5_21 7 128, 180, 688 0.07 A 30 2 Intron UUmolmed_IRF5_22 7 128181324-54 0.45 30nt deletion 76 34 In-frame deletion UUmolmed_IRF5_23 7 128182387-8 0.18 G “insertion” 84 15 Intron UUmolmed_IRF5_24 rs2070197 7 128, 182, 951 0.32 G 44 14 3′UTR UUmolmed_IRF5_25 rs10954213 7 128, 183, 378 0.24 T 50 12 3′UTR UUmolmed_IRF5_26 rs11770589 7 128, 183, 439 0.42 C 52 22 3′UTR UUmolmed_IRF5_27 rs10954214 7 128, 183, 584 0.24 T 34 8 3′UTR ¹Number assigned to variant by dbSNP (World Wide Web at ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=snp); ²Position in the HG17 assembly of the Human Genome; ³Minor Allele Frequency; ⁴Number of chromosomes with high quality data

TABLE 13 Variants discovered by resequencing all IRF5 exons and 1 Kb upstream of exon 1A in 96 US SLE cases Number of chromosomes Frequency Minor Number of with minor in HapMap Internal_ID Rs Number¹ Chromosome Position² MAF³ Allele chromosomes⁴ allele Description CEU Broad11429372 rs3757388 7 128, 169, 974 0.27 G 166 44 promoter failed_design Broad11429376 rs4639458 7 128, 170, 037 0.42 T 166 69 promoter failed_QC Broad11374596 7 128, 170, 524 0.03 A 176 6 promoter Broad11374705 7 128, 170, 965 0.01 A 190 2 promoter Broad11374729 7 128, 171, 076 0.01 A 190 1 promoter Broad11374811 7 128, 171, 232 0.02 A 190 3 promoter Broad11374827 rs3757386 7 128, 171, 248 0.12/0.02 T/G 192 22/3 promoter failed_design Broad11374834 rs3757385 7 128, 171, 255 0.26 T 184 47 promoter failed_design Broad11374851 rs3840553 7 128, 171, 277 0.11 A 188 21 promoter failed QC Broad11374863 rs3807134 7 128, 171, 289 0.12 C 190 23 promoter failed_design Broad11374900 rs3807135 7 128, 171, 568 0.27 T 172 46 promoter 0.44 Broad11374958 rs6968563 7 128, 171, 682 0.03 C 164 5 promoter 0.05 Broad11374970 7 128, 171, 699 0.01 C 166 1 promoter Broad11880969 7 128, 174, 987 0.01 T 190 1 intronic Broad11880979 rs3807305 7 128, 175, 084 0.01 A 192 2 intronic Broad11880984 7 128, 175, 162 0.01 G 192 2 intronic Broad11375359 7 128, 179, 704 0.01 A 192 2 intronic Broad11375713 7 128, 180, 096 0.01 A 192 1 intronic Broad11375787 7 128, 180, 663 0.01 T 192 1 intronic Broad11375788 7 128, 180, 688 0.02 A 192 3 intronic 0.01 Broad11376007 7 128, 180, 986 0.01 T 192 1 intronic Exon6_Deletion 7 128, 181, 0.48 30nt 190 92 In-frame 0.48 324-54 deletion deletion Broad11376731 rs2230117 7 128, 181, 996 0.01 G 192 1 synonomous 0 Broad11376908 7 128, 182, 399 0.13 G 166 22 intronic Broad11376919 7 128, 182, 426 0.03 A 174 5 intronic 0.04 Broad11376973 7 128, 182, 546 0.02 G 176 4 intronic Broad11376984 7 128, 182, 561 0.02 G 192 3 intronic 0.02 Broad11376997 7 128, 182, 579 0.01 G 182 1 missense Broad11377186 rs2070197 7 128, 182, 951 0.18 C 190 35 3′UTR 0.17 Broad11377207 7 128, 182, 978 0.01 G 192 1 3′UTR Broad11377253 7 128, 183, 044 0.02 C 178 4 3′UTR 0 Broad11377330 rs10954213 7 128, 183, 378 0.36 G 192 69 3′UTR 0.46 Broad11377356 rs11770589 7 128, 183, 439 0.4  G 192 77 3′UTR 0.38 Broad11377358 7 128, 183, 459 0.01 A 192 1 3′UTR Broad11429458 rs10954214 7 128, 183, 584 0.22 C 192 43 3′UTR 0.42 Broad11429530 7 128, 184, 089 0.01 T 192 1 3′UTR ¹Number assigned to variant by dbSNP (World Wide Web at ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=snp) ²Position in the HG17 assembly of the Human Genome ³Minor Allele Frequency ⁴Number of chromosomes with high quality data

TABLE 14 Association with IRF5 mRNA expression in transformed B-cells from HapMap CEU, CHB, JPT, and YRI populations Variant Chromosome Position¹ P value² rs7780972 7 128, 113, 113 0.66 rs4731523 7 128, 124, 227 0.45 rs6948542 7 128, 141, 463 0.9 rs1495461 7 128, 145, 691 0.57 rs960633 7 128, 154, 711 0.0036 rs6968225 7 128, 157, 557 6.0 × 10⁻²⁵ rs729302 7 128, 162, 910 0.0075 rs4728142 7 128, 167, 917 6.5 × 10⁻²¹ rs2004640 7 128, 172, 251 4.2 × 10⁻¹⁴ rs1874328 7 128, 179, 054 1.3 × 10⁻²² Exon6 indel 7 128, 181, 324 2.0 × 10⁻³¹ rs2070197 7 128, 182, 950 8.7 × 10⁻⁷ rs10954213 7 128, 183, 377 3.5 × 10⁻⁵⁵ rs11770589 7 128, 183, 438 3.7 × 10⁻³³ rs10954214 7 128, 183, 583 1.7 × 10⁻⁴⁰ rs10488631 7 128, 188, 133 7.9 × 10⁻⁷ rs2280714 7 128, 188, 675 1.7 × 10⁻⁴⁰ rs3847098 7 128, 189, 099 2.0 × 10⁻¹¹ rs11761242 7 128, 189, 556 0.0011 rs12539741 7 128, 190, 755 2.1 × 10⁻⁶ rs17166351 7 128, 191, 754 7.4 × 10⁻³⁴ rs6966125 7 128, 192, 475 1.8 × 10⁻²⁴ ¹Position of variant in the HG17 assembly of the human genome ²Association of variant to IRF5 mRNA levels in 210 unrelated EBV transformed B-cells lines derived from the HapMap samples (GENEVAR dataset, World Wide Web at sanger.ac.uk/humgen/genevar/)

TABLE 15 Association of genotype with IRF5 expression in 233 transformed B-cell lines P conditional P conditional on RS2004640 on and Marker Chromosome Position¹ Location MAF² Nominal P³ rs10954213⁴ rs10954213⁵ rs729302 7 128, 162, 911 Promoter 0.32 0.02 0.34 0.201 rs2004640 7 128, 172, 252 Exon 1B splice site 0.49 1.9 × 10⁻¹⁷ 0.0016 — rs752637 7 128, 173, 371 intron 0.45 1.2 × 10⁻⁹ 0.11 0.809 rs2070197 7 128, 182, 951 3′ UTR 0.09 0.004 0.74 0.649 rs10954213 7 128, 183, 378 3′ UTR 0.43 1.7 × 10⁻³⁸ — — rs11770589 7 128, 183, 439 3′ UTR 0.48 2.4 × 10⁻²⁵ 1 0.487 rs10954214 7 128, 183, 584 3′ UTR 0.37 1.5 × 10⁻³⁴ 0.0018 NA 6 rs2280714 7 128, 188, 676 5 kb 3′ of IRF5 0.42 1.4 × 10⁻³⁵ 0.0012 NA 6 ¹Position of marker in the HG17 assembly of the human genome ²Minor Allele Frequency ³Uncorrected P value for association of the indicated marker to IRF5 mRNA levels in 233 CEPH EBV-transformed B cells ⁴Association of the indicated marker under the model that rs10954213 fully explains all the variance in IRF5 expression ⁵Association of the indicated marker under the model that rs10954213 and rs2004640 fully explain all the variance in IRF5 expression ⁶NA indicates that the association to IRF5 expression cannot be calculated because it is statistically indistinguishable from the proposed model

TABLE 16 Association of IRF5 region markers with IRF5 expression in the HapMap CEU population P conditional on Chro- rs10954213 mo- and some Marker Position¹ MAF² P³ rs2004640⁴ 7 rs13238831 128, 070, 432 0.19 0.34 1 7 rs1532222 128, 070, 907 0.26 0.67 1 7 rs7780972 128, 073, 124 0.1 0.65 1 7 rs9656375 128, 075, 202 0.28 0.37 1 7 rs10954211 128, 075, 393 0.26 0.47 0.1 7 rs4731523 128, 084, 238 0.19 1 0.41 7 rs7782976 128, 086, 942 0.27 0.23 1 7 rs6972002 128, 093, 690 0.24 0.56 1 7 rs6948542 128, 101, 474 0.26 0.83 0.84 7 rs7786945 128, 102, 425 0.26 0.46 1 7 rs6467218 128, 102, 916 0.28 0.99 1 7 rs7792282 128, 103, 530 0.27 0.77 1 7 rs1495461 128, 105, 702 0.22 0.46 0.92 7 rs960633 128, 114, 723 0.28 0.58 1 7 rs6968225 128, 117, 569 0.18 0.0036 1 7 rs729302 128, 122, 922 0.32 0.23 1 7 rs4728142 128, 127, 929 0.41 7.47E−06 0.84 7 rs2004640 128, 132, 263 0.49 8.72E−09 — 7 rs752637 128, 133, 382 0.45 6.60E−10 1 7 rs6975315 128, 136, 447 0.02 0.71 0.43 7 rs7808907 128, 138, 046 0.47 1 0.86 7 rs2070197 128, 142, 962 0.09 0.11 0.2 7 rs10954213 128, 143, 389 0.43 2.83E−09 — 7 rs11770589 128, 143, 450 0.48 1.04E−06 1 7 rs10954214 128, 143, 595 0.37 1.19E−10 NA 7 rs13242262 128, 145, 326 0.5 6.82E−09 NA 7 rs10488630 128, 147, 910 0.28 0.001 0.63 7 rs10488631 128, 148, 145 0.16 0.14 1 7 rs2280714 128, 148, 687 0.42 2.75E−11 NA 7 rs10229001 128, 153, 359 0.45 6.77E−09 NA 7 rs1495458 128, 156, 954 0.03 0.19 0.55 7 rs2172876 128, 157, 254 0.38 9.30E−07 0.12 7 rs6957529 128, 159, 422 0.08 0.06 0.75 7 rs7385716 128, 159, 556 0.47 1.30E−08 NA 7 rs4731535 128, 159, 929 0.38 3.95E−07 0.12 7 rs8043 128, 161, 346 0.38 3.95E−07 0.12 7 rs1258897 128, 162, 375 0.01 NA NA 7 rs1874332 128, 168, 575 0.38 1 0.12 7 rs2293492 128, 169, 028 0.08 0.06 0.75 7 rs12531711 128, 171, 428 0.17 0.16 0.06 7 rs17338998 128, 172, 521 0.16 0.27 0.03 7 rs2272347 128, 173, 377 0.47 3.69E−09 NA 7 rs3817555 128, 173, 483 0.04 0.46 NA 7 rs7789423 128, 175, 166 0.42 2.75E−11 NA 7 rs6948928 128, 177, 059 0.42 2.75E−11 NA 7 rs12534421 128, 178, 035 0.17 0.16 0.06 7 rs12535158 128, 178, 981 0.17 0.16 0.06 7 rs12669885 128, 179, 251 0.04 0.46 NA 7 rs1154330 128, 179, 750 0.2 0.00619 0.36 7 rs17339221 128, 179, 876 0.2 0.01 0.36 7 rs2290231 128, 180, 519 0.04 0.46 NA 7 rs11770317 128, 183, 433 0.38 9.10E−07 0.12 7 rs6969930 128, 184, 275 0.46 3.69E−09 NA 7 rs2305323 128, 187, 680 0.28 0.000998 1 7 rs3958094 128, 189, 225 0.28 0.000998 0.63 7 rs7807018 128, 194, 146 0.45 9.99E−09 NA 7 rs2305324 128, 195, 184 0.36 3.69E−06 0.15 7 rs11768572 128, 199, 250 0.27 0.00281 1 7 rs2305325 128, 208, 798 0.36 3.69E−06 0.15 7 rs6965542 128, 209, 876 0.48 1.73E−08 NA 7 rs3857852 128, 211, 235 0.42 6.28E−11 NA 7 rs12539476 128, 211, 441 0.17 0.16 0.06 7 rs17424179 128, 211, 953 0.03 0.57 0.53 7 rs12155080 128, 212, 697 0.46 3.69E−09 NA 7 rs13236009 128, 217, 131 0.17 0.19 0.05 7 rs13221560 128, 217, 133 0.39 2.07E−10 NA 7 rs10239340 128, 222, 468 0.46 3.69E−09 NA 7 rs11762968 128, 224, 922 0.38 3.95E−07 0.12 7 rs9649520 128, 226, 603 0.34 9.03E−06 0.16 7 rs921403 128, 230, 682 0.43 8.49E−11 0.94 7 rs4731541 128, 232, 194 0.45 8.15E−08 0.94 7 rs1839600 128, 236, 681 0.02 0.34 0.03 7 rs3807301 128, 236, 970 0.28 0.00416 0.84 7 rs10279821 128, 237, 505 0.41 2.46E−10 0.91 7 rs10156169 128, 238, 529 0.42 1.80E−10 0.66 7 rs11767238 128, 240, 296 0.29 0 0.84 7 rs17424602 128, 241, 898 0.15 0.33 0.02 7 rs2167273 128, 243, 371 0.36 3.69E−06 0.15 7 rs6960994 128, 246, 615 0.26 1 0.33 7 rs6961014 128, 246, 668 0.25 0.00026 0.26 7 rs6980198 128, 247, 954 0.02 0.71 0.44 7 rs3807300 128, 248, 049 0.02 0.32 0.97 7 rs2242028 128, 248, 934 0.25 0.00069 0.35 7 rs13239597 128, 249, 941 0.17 0.16 0.06 7 rs13246321 128, 255, 289 0.17 0.19 0.06 7 rs17424921 128, 262, 080 0.17 0.05 0.34 7 rs17340351 128, 262, 755 0.18 0.13 0.02 7 rs17167079 128, 263, 129 0.02 0.11 0.97 7 rs1901198 128, 263, 747 0.38 1.91E−06 0.04 7 rs7794772 128, 264, 168 0.02 0.32 0.97 7 rs7795214 128, 264, 418 0.03 0.32 0.97 7 rs13222967 128, 265, 186 0.27 0.18 0.49 7 rs7783840 128, 265, 657 0.26 0.12 0.21 7 rs12537496 128, 266, 826 0.23 0.01 1 7 rs12536719 128, 271, 698 0.15 0.19 0.53 7 rs12537284 128, 271, 864 0.16 0.12 0.04 7 rs12537264 128, 271, 923 0.18 1 1 7 rs17340542 128, 274, 003 0.17 0.16 1 7 rs17425212 128, 275, 682 0.18 0.16 0.21 7 rs17340646 128, 276, 472 0.26 1 0.03 7 rs13227095 128, 277, 901 0.25 0.00176 0.1 7 rs12706862 128, 279, 283 0.39 0.00163 1 7 rs6959557 128, 279, 508 0.37 0.00595 1 7 rs6959965 128, 279, 680 0.37 0.01 1 7 rs7458937 128, 282, 712 0.32 0.00114 1 7 rs2084654 128, 283, 086 0.38 0.00595 0.13 7 rs4731545 128, 286, 220 0.41 0.39 0.09

TABLE 17 Association of IRF5 haplotypes with SLE Group 3 Group 2 polyA+ Exon 1B¹ Exon 6 Group 1 signal³ Haplotype (rs2004640) Indel² rs2070197 (rs10954213) T⁴ U⁵ OR (95% c.i.)⁶ X² P⁷ USA and UK 1 T Insertion C A 181 99 1.90 (1.50-2.41) 24.2 8.5 × 10⁻⁷ 555 trio pedigrees 2 T Deletion T A 248 222 1.12 (0.93-1.34) 1.5 0.2269 3 T Insertion T G 43 50 0.86 (0.57-1.29) 0.6 0.4384 4 G Insertion T G 195 234 0.83 (0.69-1.01) 3.7 0.0553 5 G Deletion T A 104 165 0.63 (0.50-0.80) 13.9 2.0 × 10⁻⁴ Exon 6 Case Control Haplotype rs2004640 Indel rs2070197 rs10954213 Freq⁸ Freq⁹ OR (95% c.i.) X² P USA and UK 1 T Insertion C A 0.175 0.114 1.66 (1.40-1.98) 32.8 1.0 × 10⁻⁸ Cases = 1532 2 T Deletion T A 0.377 0.363 1.06 (0.94-1.21) 0.9 0.3406 Controls = 2878 3 T Insertion T G 0.038 0.038 1.00 (0.72-1.38) 0 0.9981 4 G Insertion T G 0.29 0.351 0.76 (0.66-0.87) 16.4 5.3 × 10⁻⁵ 5 G Deletion T A 0.119 0.135 0.86 (.71-1.04) 2.4 0.1233 Exon 6 Case Control Haplotype rs2004640 Indel rs2070197 rs10954213 Freq Freq OR (95% c.i.) X² P Sweden 1 T Insertion C A 0.226 0.131 1.94 (1.47-2.57) 21.4 3.6 × 10⁻⁶ Cases = 656 2 T Deletion T A 0.372 0.349 1.10 (0.89-1.38) 0.8 0.3763 Controls = 718 3 T Insertion T G 0.046 0.047 0.97 (0.59-1.61) 0 0.9176 4 G Insertion T G 0.219 0.296 0.67 (0.52-0.85) 10.4 0.0012 5 G Deletion T A 0.137 0.177 0.73 (0.55-0.99) 4.3 0.0393 Exon 6 Haplotype rs2004640 Indel rs2070197 rs10954213 OR (95% c.i.) Pooled P Meta-analysis 1 T Insertion C A 1.78 (1.57-2.02) 1.4 × 10⁻¹⁹ 555 trio pedigrees 2 T Deletion T A 1.09 (0.99-1.19) 0.0437 Cases = 2188 3 T Insertion T G 0.95 (0.76-1.19) 0.6743 Controls = 3596 4 G Insertion T G 0.76 (0.69-0.84) 5.0 × 10⁻⁸ 5 G Deletion T A 0.76 (0.67-0.87) 2.8 × 10⁻⁵ ¹Exon 1B Splice donor site (T allele allows expression of exon 1B transcripts) ²In-frame insertion/deletion of 30 bp in exon 6 of IRF5, chr7: 128,181,324-54 (HG17) ³polyA⁺ Signal variant (“A” allele is associated with 561 bp 3′ UTR; “G” allele is associated with enrichment of 1214 bp 3′ UTR ⁴Number of transmitted haplotypes ⁵Number of untransmitted haplotypes ⁶Odds Ratio and 95% confidence intervals ⁷Nominal P value for association to SLE ⁸Frequency of haplotypes in SLE cases ⁹Frequency of haplotypes in controls

TABLE 18 IRF5 genotype frequencies in SLE cases and controls Controls Geno- Cases Fre- type¹ N² Frequency³ N quency OR⁴ I² P US and UK cases and controls 1 1 26 0.028 14 0.01 2.96 11.5 0.00068 1 2 108 0.117 115 0.08 1.53 9.2 0.00249 1 3 17 0.018 9 0.006 2.99 7.7 0.00561 1 4 89 0.097 124 0.086 1.13 0.8 0.38648 1 5 41 0.045 51 0.035 1.27 1.2 0.26741 2 2 132 0.143 187 0.13 1.12 0.9 0.35655 2 3 32 0.035 52 0.036 0.96 0 0.85803 2 4 207 0.225 359 0.249 0.87 1.9 0.17033 2 5 83 0.09 144 0.1 0.89 0.6 0.42371 3 3 2 0.002 1 0.001 3.13 1 0.32719 3 4 20 0.022 46 0.032 0.67 2.2 0.14073 3 5 0 0 0 0 4 4 87 0.094 162 0.113 0.82 2 0.16259 4 5 65 0.071 156 0.108 0.62 9.5 0.00209 5 5 12 0.013 19 0.013 0.99 0 0.97477 Total 921 1439 1 X 281 0.305 313 0.218 1.58 22.9 1.7 × 10⁻⁶ 2 X 562 0.61 857 0.596 1.06 0.5 0.47862 3 X 71 0.077 108 0.075 1.03 0 0.85585 4 X 468 0.508 847 0.589 0.72 14.7 0.00012 5 X 201 0.218 370 0.257 0.81 4.6 0.03142 Swedish cases and controls 1 1 21 0.065 10 0.028 2.36 5.1 0.024 1 2 45 0.139 24 0.068 2.2 9.1 0.0025 1 3 7 0.022 3 0.009 2.56 2 0.161 1 4 37 0.114 31 0.088 1.33 1.2 0.264 1 5 20 0.062 14 0.04 1.58 1.7 0.195 2 2 47 0.145 44 0.125 1.18 0.6 0.454 2 3 12 0.037 9 0.026 1.46 0.7 0.394 2 4 53 0.164 82 0.234 0.64 5.2 0.023 2 5 36 0.111 41 0.117 0.95 0.1 0.816 3 3 0 0 0 0 3 4 6 0.019 14 0.04 0.45 2.7 0.102 3 5 1 0.003 9 0.026 0.12 5.9 0.015 4 4 17 0.052 23 0.066 0.79 0.5 0.473 4 5 15 0.046 32 0.091 0.48 5.2 0.022 5 5 7 0.022 15 0.043 0.49 2.4 0.122 Total 324 351 1 X 130 0.401 82 0.234 2.2 22 2.8 × 10⁻⁶ 2 X 193 0.596 200 0.57 1.11 0.5 0.496 3 X 26 0.08 35 0.1 0.79 0.8 0.378 4 X 128 0.395 182 0.519 0.61 10.3 0.0013 5 X 79 0.244 111 0.316 0.7 4.4 0.037 ¹Genotype of the IRF5 haplotypes defined in Table 17 ²Number of individuals with the indicated genotype ³Genotype frequency ⁴Odds Ratio

TABLE 19 Frequency of IRF5 haplotypes in representative world populations from the Human Genome Diversity Project Haplotype² N¹ 1 2 3 4 5 Africa Biaka Pygmies 72 — 0.4 — 0.44 0.15 Mbuti Pygmies 30 — 0.7 — 0.23 0.07 Mandenka 48 — 0.38 — 0.54 0.08 Yoruba 50 — 0.28 — 0.52 0.2 Bantu 38 — 0.39 0.03 0.45 0.13 San 14 — 0.21 0.29 0.14 0.36 America Colombian 22 0.09 — — 0.77 0.14 Karitiana 48 0.02 — — 0.9 0.08 Maya 50 0.34 0.1 — 0.44 0.12 Pima 50 0.36 0.02 — 0.5 0.12 Surui 42 — — — 1 — Central/ Balochi 50 0.04 0.38 0.06 0.32 0.2 South Asia Brahui 50 0.3  0.16 0.08 0.16 0.3 Burusho 50 0.18 0.32 0.14 0.3 0.06 Hazara 50 0.02 0.38 0.06 0.3 0.24 Kalash 50 0.04 0.32 0.04 0.56 0.04 Makrani 50 0.14 0.36 0.04 0.24 0.22 Pathan 49 0.14 0.25 0.12 0.27 0.2 Sindhi 49 0.2  0.37 0.06 0.31 0.04 Uygur 20 0.1  0.35 — 0.35 0.2 East Asia Cambodian 20 — 0.3 0.25 0.3 0.15 Dai 18 — — 0.11 0.56 0.33 Daur 20 — 0.25 — 0.6 0.15 Han 90 — 0.18 0.06 0.33 0.43 Hezhen 20 — 0.25 0.05 0.5 0.2 Japanese 60 0.02 0.23 0.07 0.47 0.22 Lahu 20 — 0.1 0.15 0.35 0.4 Miaozu 20 — 0.1 0.15 0.35 0.4 Mongola 18 — 0.17 0.06 0.33 0.44 Naxi 20 — 0.3 — 0.35 0.35 Oroqen 20 0.05 0.35 0.05 0.5 0.05 She 20 — 0.25 0.05 0.25 0.45 Tu 20 0.05 0.45 0.1  0.2 0.2 Tujia 18 — 0.17 0.17 0.33 0.33 Xibo 18 — 0.22 0.17 0.39 0.22 Yakut 50 — 0.26 0.06 0.56 0.12 Yizu 20 — 0.35 0.1  0.3 0.25 Europe Adygei 30 0.23 0.33 0.03 0.27 0.13 French 40 0.08 0.25 0.13 0.45 0.1 French Basque 42 0.24 0.26 0.05 0.17 0.29 North Italian 26 0.08 0.42 0.04 0.31 0.15 Orcadian 30 0.13 0.43 — 0.3 0.13 Russian 50 0.12 0.3 0.06 0.36 0.16 Sardinian 52 0.04 0.38 0.08 0.31 0.19 Tuscan 14 — 0.57 0.07 0.14 0.21 Middle East Bedouin 98 0.1  0.4 0.1  0.34 0.06 Druze 94 0.17 0.38 0.15 0.26 0.04 Mozabite 58 0.02 0.4 0.03 0.36 0.19 Palestinian 100 0.2  0.39 0.13 0.22 0.06 Oceania Melanesian 40 — 0.1 — 0.75 0.15 Papuan 34 — 0.03 0.12 0.5 0.35 ¹Number of chromosomes. Haplotypes with frequency >0.01 were analyzed. ²Phased haplotypes of IRF5 at rs2004640, rs2070197, and rs10954213.1 = TCA, 2 = TTA, 3 = TTG, 4 = GTG, 5 = GTA.

Other Embodiments

It is to be understood that while the invention has been described in conjunction with the detailed description thereof, the foregoing description is intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of the invention, which is defined by the scope of the appended claims. Other aspects, advantages, and modifications are within the scope of the following claims. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for assessing the predisposition of a human to develop systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), comprising: (a) assaying nucleic acid from a biological sample of said human to determine whether or not said human has an IRF-5 haplotype comprising an rs2004640 T allele, the 30 base pair IRF-5 exon 6 insertion allele depicted in FIG. 11 herein, and an rs10954213 A allele; and (b) classifying said human as being predisposed to develop SLE if said human has said IRF-5 haplotype, or classifying said human as not being predisposed to develop SLE if said human does not contain said IRF-5 haplotype.
 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising determining whether a biological sample from said human contains elevated levels of interferon-α (IFN-α), interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA), interleukin-6 (IL-6), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), macrophage inflammatory protein-1α (MIP-1α), macrophage inflammatory protein-1β (MIP-1β), or tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α).
 3. A method for assessing the predisposition of a human to develop SLE, comprising: (a) assaying nucleic acid from a biological sample of said human to determine whether or not said human has an IRF-5 haplotype comprising an rs2004640 T allele, the 30 base pair IRF-5 exon 6 insertion allele depicted in FIG. 11 herein, an rs10954213 A allele, and an rs2070197 C allele; and (b) classifying said human as being predisposed to develop SLE if said human has said IRF-5 haplotype, or classifying said human as not being predisposed to develop SLE if said human does not have said IRF-5 haplotype.
 4. The method of claim 3, further comprising determining whether a biological sample from said human contains elevated levels of interferon-α (IFN-α), interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA), interleukin-6 (IL-6), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), macrophage inflammatory protein-1α (MIP-1α), macrophage inflammatory protein-1β (MIP-1β), or tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). 